15 It 

»y 1 

FORMAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
AS A DISCIPLINE 



By 
THOMAS H. BRIGGS ^ 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRE- 
MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, 
IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



Reprinted from Teachers College Record 
September 1913, pp. 1 to 93 



PUBLISHED BY 

StearJjrre (Enltegp, (Enlttmhta lltuwrstty 

NEW YORK CITY 

1913 



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FORMAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
AS A DISCIPLINE 



By 
THOMAS H. BRIGGS 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRE- 
MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, 
IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



Reprinted from Teachers College Record 
September 1913, pp. 1 to 93 



PUBLISHED BY 

5feartj*rs ©ollrg?, ©nlumWa $ttiu?rHttg 

NEW YORK CITY 

1913 






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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Acknowledgment is gratefully made to Superintendent E. C. 
Broome, of Mt. Vernon, New York, to Professor F. G. Bonser, 
in charge of the Speyer School, New York City, and to their 
teachers for affording me opportunities to try out the tests used 
in this experiment; to Principal Henry Carr Pearson, Miss 
Lillian Rogers, and Miss Caroline W. Hotchkiss, of the Horace 
Mann School, New York City, for making possible the conditions 
under which the major part of the experiment was conducted; 
to Superintendents DeWitt Elwood, A. W. Gross, A. P. Johnson, 
G. P. Randle, and H. B. Wilson, all of Illinois, and their teachers ; 
to the authorities and teachers at the Eastern Illinois State Nor- 
mal School and at the Indiana State Normal School for the 
same contribution to the remaining part of the experiment; to 
Dr. C. H. Bean, Professor E. E. Lewis, and Mr. H. O. Rugg, 
for administering for me certain tests; and to Professor F. T. 
Baker and Professor E. L. Thorndike, of Teachers College, for 
aiding me constantly in various ways. The extent of my 
obligation to Professor Thorndike can be appreciated only by 
those who have received from him similar stimulus, guidance, 
and correction. T. H. b. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 
PART I 

PAGE 

Historical Sketch of Grammar and the Teaching of Grammar. . i 

PART II 

General Claims for Grammar 7 

Formal Grammar Defined 7 

General Claims for Formal Grammar as a Discipline 9 

Specific Claims for Formal Grammar as a Discipline n 

Common Fallacies in the Argument 12 

Lack of Experimental Evidence 14 

Experiment Devised 15 

The Tests 15 

Scoring 45 

PART III 

Conditions Secured at the Horace Mann School 50 

The Children and School Conditions 50 

Other Conditions , 55 

Attempt to Secure a General Ideal 56 

Administration of the Tests 57 

Results 58 

PART IV 

Tests in Other Schools 72 

Results 74 

Summary 92 

Bibliography 93 



TEACHERS COLLEGE RECORD 



Vol. XIV SEPTEMBER, 1913 No. 4 



FORMAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR AS A DISCIPLINE 

PART I 

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF GRAMMAR AND THE 
TEACHING OF GRAMMAR 

The grammar that is commonly taught in elementary schools 
to-day has a long and unbroken descent to us from its origin in 
Greece. Though in every age called grammar, it has not always 
had the same content and purposes ; both indeed have changed 
so often that definiteness demands a careful explanation of the 
term whenever it is used. They will be better understood, too, 
after an acquaintance with the development of the subject in 
the school curricula, a full history of which is yet to be written. 1 

The origin of grammar was in philosophy, which still divides 
the subject with the elementary school; but so slowly were even 
the fundamental facts discovered that Aristotle in his wisdom 
knew nothing of adverbs and tenses as such. Already in the 
fourth century b.c. ther~ existed, however, two " schools " — 
the Analogists, who maintained that there was between word 
and idea a mysterious union which made impossible any excep- 
tions to grammatical rules; and the Anomalists, who denied 
general rules of any kind unless they were justified by custom. 
After a long contest the former school, as strange as it may 
seem, won the field, which it maintained chiefly by tradition for 

1 Most of the facts in the following sketch were drawn from the article 
on Grammar by Sayce in the Encyclopedia Britannica. Abelson's The 
Seven Liberal Arts, Mullinger's Schools of Charles the Great, Barbour's 
The Teaching of English Grammar, Monroe's A Text-Book in the 
History of Education, and Carpenter, Baker & Scott's The Teaching 
of English. 

251] I 



2 Teachers College Record [252 

many centuries — indeed, it has not even yet been entirely driven 
forth. 

But in Greece, grammar acquired a large meaning and a 
practical value. As one of the Seven Liberal Arts it included 
first and last even more than we understand now by language and 
literature. In its narrow sense it was used practically by the 
Sophists to aid them in their rhetorical contests ; in its compre- 
hensive sense, by all Greek scholars to instruct the youth in 
culture. 

As a practical study grammar was introduced into Rome 
primarily that scholars might learn the Greek language and 
participate in the literature which it had been used to express. 
This practical value, prominent throughout the Hellenistic period 
(from 200 B.C. to 100 a.d.), was emphasized by Dionysius Thrax, 
who in the first prechristian century wrote for Romans his Greek 
grammar. This became the basis of several grammars of the 
Latin tongue; the adapting authors, anticipating their English 
descendants, not only misunderstood and mistranslated their 
originals, but failed to realize that the grammar of one language 
is not identical with that of another. Partly as a result of this 
artificiality, grammar must have readily shared in the degenera- 
tion of all intellectual life after the time of Suetonius, retaining 
only its form. This, however, was assiduously studied. 

At first the Christian Church had no interest in grammar, 
rejecting it along with everything else pagan. But after the 
church felt itself secure, especially as it recognized the need 
of organized linguistic facts for the priests who had to learn 
to read the Scriptures, this hostility slowly dissipated. Then 
began the general use of two text-books, the " Ars Grammatica 
Minor," through which Donatus in the fourth century presented 
the organization of syntax that the systematizing Roman mind 
had developed, and the " Institutio de Arte," through which 
Priscian a century later attempted to put the grammar of Latin 
on the same scientific footing as that of Greek. 

There was no such agreement, however, regarding content as 
there was regarding texts. Cassiodorus considered grammar 
to embrace literature; Isidore of Seville called it " et origo et 
fundamentum liberalium literarum " ; and Rabanus Maurus 
repeated the statement adding that it was " scientia interpretandi 



2 53.1 Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 3 

poetas atque historicos et recte scribendi loquendique ratio." 
But there is evidence that these ideals were not followed in 
general practice. After Gregory the Great the original interpre- 
tation of the study of grammar, according to Mullinger, dwindled 
to nothing more than a technical knowledge of the Latin 
language. This was mastered primarily as a means to acquire 
the universal language of scholars. Alcuin, among others, 
scrupulously abstains from dwelling on literature as an aspect 
of grammar. In his " Disputatio " we find how formal a matter 
he considers it. " Grammar is the science of letters, the guardian 
of language and of correct style. It is founded on nature, reason, 
authority, and usage. It is divided into 26 ' species ' ; to wit, 
words, letters, syllables, clauses, sayings, speeches, definitions, 
feet, accents, punctuations, critical works, orthographies, analo- 
gies, etymologies, glosses, differences, barbarisms, solecisms, 
faults, metaplasms, schemata, tropes, prose, meter, fables, and 
histories." 

He writes, further, that the syllable has " three accents — the 
acute, the grave, and the circumflex; two breathings, hard and 
soft; quantity, two short syllables being equivalent to one long; 
and number, according to the letters of which it is composed." 
We get even a clearer idea of the formalism involved when we 
realize that Alcuin, who was inaccurate even in the small Greek 
he did know, was discussing not Greek grammar, but grammar. 

During the period of Scholasticism there was a shrinking of 
the content of grammar; and at the universities there developed 
an exaggeration of the disposition to reason about details, 
a disposition that has always, early and late, shown 
itself. The chief text after 1199 was Alexander de 
Villedieu's " Doctrinale," less than a fifth of which was devoted 
to syntax. With this book as a text Scholasticism, caring little 
for the validity of grammar, taught it as a deductive science; 
and in the monasteries used it as a discipline or occupation for 
idle time. There is small wonder, then, that the Humanists in 
the fifteenth century directed their first attack against the 
" Doctrinale." But when the spirit went from their movement 
the Humanists incorporated much of the book into their own 
texts. Within two generations there had been another change 
from substance back again to form. 



4 Teachers College Record [254 

But in all these centuries, however much had been taken out 
of the content of grammar, there was a real need for the 
essentials of the subject as a means of acquiring the universal 
language of scholarship. Even in the seventeenth century 
Comenius wrote, 2 " I presume that no one can raise any objection 
to my placing [Latin] grammar first, since it is the key of all 
knowledge." There was a disposition, however, to doubt even 
that fact. Locke 3 somewhat later declared, " I would fain have 
anyone name to me that Tongue, that anyone can learn, or speak 
as he should do, by the rules of Grammar. Languages were 
made not by Rules or Art, but by Accident, and the Common 
Use of the People." And whether Locke was right or not, the 
chief reason for the study of Latin grammar by English people 
passed when the language of scholarship became the vernacular. 

The first so-called English grammar was the Introduction, 
written by John Colet about 1542, to Lily's "Latin Grammar." 
The whole book was by royal command taught throughout the 
realm and thus became the standard of grammatical reference 
for two hundred years. This introduction to King Henry's 
Grammar and its successors " were not properly English gram- 
mars at all ; they were translations of the Latin accidence and 
were designed to aid the pupil in the acquisition of Latin." 
The appearance of these books, based on a belief that the 
study of Latin did not give a ready and effective command of 
the mother tongue, presaged good ; but partly because of the 
general study of Latin and Greek in the schools, partly because 
authors and masters alike were " accustomed to mechanical 
methods of dealing with facts of a dead language, known to 
them almost entirely in its somewhat artificial literary form," 
the grammar was English in name only. With a complex 
organization, almost without exception on the skeleton of 
orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody, these books 
through an attempt to apply the rules of a highly inflected 
language to English were absurdly artificial. Blinded themselves 
to the genius of the English language, the authors established 
a tradition which has continued to blind the eyes of schoolmen 
even to the present day. It was bad enough for the authors to 

2 Great Didactic, Chap. XXX. 

"Thoughts Concerning Education, Sec. 168. 



2 5 5] Formal English Grammar as a Disciplnie 5 

believe that the only sure means of acquiring the art of speaking 
and writing correctly was through the memorizing of formal 
grammatical rules ; it was far worse that they presented rules 
derived from the facts of another language and applicable with 
entire truth only to it. The transfer of grammar from Latin 
to English, like its transfer from Greek to Latin, carried over 
much that was untrue and hence wasteful in the schools. 

The authors of texts nearly all agreed in calling grammar an 
art; they presented, however, rules to be committed, sentences 
to be parsed or analyzed, and faulty diction to be corrected. 
Their ideal was that children, for by this time the subject had 
been transferred gradually from philosophers to children, should 
understand the syntactical laws of the language and should 
acquire skill in logical analysis. Holding this ideal Lindley 
Murray in 1795 published a grammar which on account of its 
relative simplicity became the most popular text for many years. 
In 1823 Kirkham further simplified and adapted the subject 
for children in his " English Grammar in Familiar Lectures." 
It was about this time that English grammar took its place along- 
side Latin grammar as a common study in the elementary school. 
This book had the practical advantage of demanding the 
immediate application of rules to sentences, and it also presented 
a new Systematic Order of Parsing, which, however economical 
of the teachers' time, fixed a deadening outline on recitations 
for two generations. A further advance was proposed in the 
" English Analysis," by Green, published in 1847. Green in his 
advocacy of the analysis of whole sentences and also sentence 
building may be termed the progenitor of the modern idea of 
discipline through grammar and of language books. One may 
get a good idea of the severity of the discipline that he demanded 
by examining his distinction between subject and predicate 
attribute. 

From this time forward almost every phase of grammar can 
be found in the rapidly multiplying texts, but three lines of 
development are fairly distinct. The first was logical and meta- 
physical, drawing its strength largely from the complexity of 
the subject and the interest that philosophers have always 
evinced in it. The authors attempted to present an adult, 
scholarly interest to children. The second was historical. With 



6 Teachers College Record [256 

the increased knowledge of comparative linguistics there was a 
demand from scholarship for greater historical accuracy in 
the treatment of grammar in school texts; Goold Brown, for 
instance, thought Kirkham very reprehensible because he con- 
sidered words " without any regard to their ancient construction 
and application." The third line continued the old tradition of 
grammar as a deductive science, presenting a definition followed 
by examples and an exercise. Of this type the " Essentials of 
English Grammar " by Whitney is the most conspicuous. 

The text-books in current use may be roughly divided into 
two classes : the first professes to apply traditional grammar 
practically to language; the second, following the laboratory 
practice of other subjects, has made grammar an inductive 
science. The old yields slowly. In the books of the first class 
many details persist by the sole authority of tradition; in those 
of the second, they are justified, openly or implicitly, as afford- 
ing a general discipline of the mental powers. This theory has 
gained adherence in proportion to the need felt for justifying 
existing practice. 

This sketch has attempted to show that modern grammar 
was born of philosophy and still is held in close relationship 
to it; that recurrently there have arisen new conditions which 
demand a modification of the purpose and content of the subject; 
that with every change tradition has perpetuated details which 
had lost much or all of their justification; and that when old 
reasons have faded there is a tendency to invent new ones to 
justify practice. The purpose of the following study is to 
ascertain, so far as possible, if the claims that formal grammar 
is an effective discipline are sound. 



PART II 

GENERAL CLAIMS FOR GRAMMAR 

The claims for modern English grammar to a place in the 
elementary school curriculum have been well formulated by 
Hoyt. 1 He found after " a survey of current pedagogical 
literature and a canvas of the opinions of a number of teachers 
of grammar," that " there is a remarkable consensus of opinion 
as to the object of teaching grammar, and consequently in the 
arguments advanced to justify its being taught." 

" It is asserted," Hoyt records, " that grammar — 

(i) disciplines the mind; 

(2) prepares for the study of other languages; 

(3) gives command of an indispensable terminology; 

(4) enables one to use better English; 

(5) aids in the interpretation of literature." 

A further investigation, especially of publications since 1906, 
reveals no further claims. 

Formal Grammar Defined 

It is obvious that the first of these claims concerns formal 
grammar, by which is meant grammar highly organized and 
taught as a strict science, chiefly for its own sake or as a dis- 
cipline for the mind. Particular attention may or may not be 
paid to the elements that function in the interpretation of 
literature or in expression through language. It is certain to 
introduce many elements that have no such functional value. 
Indeed, in the strictest sense the worth of any fact in formal 
grammar is determined by its function in a logical scheme rather 
than by any significance in the uses of life. This distinction 
between formal and functional grammar should be carefully 
made and kept in mind, for a failure to discriminate here 

1 The Place of Grammar in the Elementary School Curriculum, 
Teachers College Record, November, 1906. 

257] 7 



Teachers College Record [258 

beclouds the issue and frequently results in needless controversy 
over the value of grammar as a school subject. Holmes, in the 
leaflet of The New England Association of Teachers of English 
for March, 1913, seems to have in mind a disciplinary grammar, 2 
but his whole argument is for the elements that contribute 
directly to conservative correctness, the acquiring of a foreign 
language, and effective composition. Brown, likewise, in The 
English Journal* makes his third topic " grammar as a disciplin- 
ary study." But under this head he argues only that many of 
our school texts in grammar contain unscientific conflicts of 
statement or avoidable inconsistencies of grouping. The fact 
that a functional type of grammar may be highly effective in 
schools does not warrant the highly formal type, neither alone 
nor in combination with immediately practical elements. 

Almost everywhere in pedagogical literature emphasis is laid 
on the claim that grammar " disciplines the mind." Even 
authors who believe that less time should be given in the 
elementary schools to grammar as a science, 4 assert that the 
most important of the functions of grammar is undoubtedly a 
training in thought. Many writers advance this claim as the 
only one of great value; for example, the Committee of Ten 5 
asserts that " the study of formal grammar is valuable as 
training in thought, but has only an indirect bearing on the 
art of writing and speaking " ; and Gowdy 6 writes, " The 
purpose of language books and rhetorics is to give practical help 
in the art of speaking and writing correctly and effectively. 
Grammar, on the contrary, is a science. It is pre-eminently a 
disciplinary study." It is notable that in her revised edition 
(1909) Gowdy omits this statement, but retains the identical 
plan and purpose of her book. Buck, 7 while arguing that school 
texts in grammar are frequently unscientific, frankly says, " We 
know that the study of English grammar has long since ceased 
to justify itself as a practical art." 

* He says, inter alia, that grammar " shall parallel and stimulate the 
development of the thinking processes." Page 4. 

8 February, 1913. 

* E.g., Carpenter, Baker & Scott, The Teaching of English, p. 146. 
(1903.) 

6 Report of the Committee of Ten, p. 89. (1893.) 
•English Grammar, p. iv. (1901.) 

7 School Review, XVII, 29-30. 



2 5 9] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 9 

General Claims for Formal Grammar as a Discipline 

Barbour 8 declares that grammar " has no superior in the 
school curriculum, and no substitute in the school curriculum, 
as a discipline of the logical faculties." Chubb, 9 although an 
advocate of functional rather than of formal grammar, thinks 
that English grammar is superior to that of Latin and Greek 
because " reason replaces memory ; thought-evidence, the 
sense evidence of inflection Hence its superior disciplin- 
ary value, save in the matter of mere memorizing." Woodward 10 
is another who thinks that as a discipline English grammar is 
superior to the classics. And Hinsdale 11 compares the disciplin- 
ary value of grammar with that of the other sciences in the 
school curricula. 

Laurie 12 repeatedly voices the disciplinary claim. " I will now 
conclude," he writes, " that language, as formal, is the most 
effective and universal of all pure disciplines possible in the 
school. . . ." 13 And further 14 he declares that by formal grammar 
we " strengthen reason for all particular exercises of whatever 
kind," and even acquire a " moral discipline." 15 One more 
quotation 16 from Laurie clearly presents the claim for grammar 
as a disciplinary means : 

" The occupation of the intelligence with the abstract is, as 
I have said, in a special degree, a discipline, because in con- 
templating the abstract we are not far from the contemplation 
of mind itself in its nakedness as a living process, and are thus 
making an almost direct acquaintance with the organon of all 
knowledge. But this is not in the truest and fullest sense 
education, but only that part of it which we call discipline; 
it is to be compared to the sharpening of the edge of a tool and 
the strengthening of the body of it for some practical purpose. 
Grammar, as the logic of common speech, is a system of 
abstractions." 

Leonard 17 is another writer on methods who over and over 



The Teaching of English Grammar, p. 30. (1901.) 
The Teaching of English, pp. 208-209. (1902.) 
10 Study of English in the Schools. (1887.) 
1 Teaching the Language-Arts, p. 156. (1896.) 
3 Language and Linguistic Method. (Second edition, 1893.) 
z Loc. cit., p. 13. 
* Pages 23-24. 

6 Page 8. 
'Page 66. 

7 Grammar and Its Reasons. (1907.) 



io Teachers College Record [260 

again asserts that " the best result of the study of grammar is 
a logical habit of mind." She maintains that " in the discussion 
of the subtler question of syntax it is not the decision reached 
that is of chief importance. It is the power of thinking gained 
by the effort to compare and discriminate the relations of a 
thought that is of truest educational value." 18 

And Sheffield, who protests against the unscientific attitude of 
most texts on modern English, holds 19 that " the grammar of 
one's mother tongue must justify itself as a discipline, imparting 
insight into the nature of the language-medium." He thinks, 
however, that " no result so fruitful can now be claimed for 
school work in English," and, further, 20 that " the mind is not 
to be trained by a routine of mental pulley-weights, for the 
power to think, like the will to do right, develops best as a 
by-product of effort directed upon something worth while in 
itself." Leonard, on the other hand, is more optimistic. She 
argues 21 that if the teacher of grammar sees no results he need 
not be discouraged. With a faith born of hope she thus encour- 
ages the credulous, even if she does not convince the scientific: 

"Let him [the teacher] take up this necessary subject of 
English grammar with courageous heart, feeling sure that faith- 
ful work along this line is sure in its own time and way to 
contribute large and important elements to the comprehensive 
end which is perhaps the highest result of education, namely, 
the perfection of thought and its fitting expression." 

These quotations from writers on the composition of the 
curriculum and its method fairly well represent, too, the attitude 
of the makers of school text-books. Some very frankly in their 
prefaces make the claim of general disciplinary value, while 
others, especially during recent years, give no such reason for 
the study of grammar but follow in the body of the book the 
same plan as those who do. Even in those books that lay much 
emphasis on the application of grammar to composition there 
are retained many details — elaborate treatment of the noun used 
as an adverb, for instance, or a distinction between a subordinate 
conjunction and a conjunctive adverb — that can be justified in 

18 Page 349. 

"Grammar and Thinking, p. 2. (1912.) 

20 Loc. cit., p. 190. 

21 Loc. cit., p. 350. 



26 1 ] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline n 

an elementary school study only as a means for training the 
mind to general habits. 

Specific Claims for Formal Grammar as a Discipline 

But these claims for grammar are too general. On reading 
them any thoughtful person is likely to ask, " Just what do 
they mean ? " A definite answer to this question is much more 
difficult to find, most writers on theory as well as practically all 
writers of texts resting content with the general statement. 
Even when they do attempt to make the claims for grammar 
specific, they use language that is difficult to translate into terms 
of the fifth to eight grade teaching. Hinsdale, 22 for example, 
writes : 

" The study involves a peculiar exercise of the powers of 
observation — the forms of words, idioms, and sentences, and of 
the realities that are behind them, distinctions, meanings, and 
relations. These forms and relations develop a kind of sense 
or perception that external objects do not develop. Secondly, 
the study involves also a vigorous exercise of the logical 
powers — analysis, abstraction, comparison, inference. Grammar 
is the application of logic to a large and important class of 
facts. The powers of thought are developed by studying the 
relations of objects, external and internal. The first rank far 
below the second in educational value. . . . Power of abstract 
thought is promoted most directly and effectively, as Professor 
Laurie says, ' by formal or abstract studies, such as arithmetic, 
mathematics, grammar, logic; and this because the occupation 
of the mind with the abstract is the nearest approach to the 
occupation of the mind with itself as an organism of thinking.' 
Grammar is indeed the only metaphysical study that a large 
majority of people ever pursue ; and if that would be a defective 
information which ignored the facts of language, a fortiori would 
that be a defective discipline which omitted its relations." 

And in the report of the Committee of Fifteen on Correlation 
of Studies, a report that advocates five lessons of grammar a 
week, with a text-book, the latter half of the fifth year and all 
of the sixth and seventh, we find: 23 

" Grammar is the science of language, and as the first of the 
seven liberal arts it has long held sway in school as the disciplin- 

22 Teaching the Language-Arts, pp. 156-157. (1896.) 

23 Report of the Sub-Committee on The Correlation of Studies in 
Elementary Education, pp. 48-49. (1895.) 



12 Teachers College Record [262 

ary study par excellence. A survey of its educational value, 
subjective and objective, usually produces the conviction that 
it is to retain the first place in the future. Its chief objective 
advantage is that it shows the structure of language, and the 
logical forms of subject, predicate, and modifier, thus revealing 
the essential nature of thought itself, the most important of all 
objects because it is self -object. On the subjective or psycho- 
logical side, grammar demonstrates its title to the first place by 
its use as a discipline in subtle analysis, in logical division and 
classification, in the art of questioning, and in the mental accom- 
plishment of making exact definitions. Nor is this an empty, 
formal discipline, for its subject matter, language, is a product 
of the reason of a people not as individuals but as a social whole, 
and the vocabulary holds in its store of words the generalized 
store of experience of that people, including sensuous observation 
and reflection, feeling and emotion, instinct and volition." 

After a consideration of all the specific claims that could be 
found for formal grammar in the writings of educational 
theorists, of the contents of a number of widely used grammar 
texts, and of the opinions of several writers of grammars, who 
were kind enough to set down categorically their beliefs in the 
subject, the following conclusions were drawn: It is held that 
work in formal grammar trains children 

A. with rules or definitions : 

1. to see likenesses and differences, 

2. to critically test a definition, 

3. to thoroughly apply a definition, 

4. to make a rule or definition; 

B. with reasoning: 

5. to test reasons, 

6a. to take from a mass of data all that are necessary 
and to use them in reaching a judgment, 

6b. to demand all necessary data before drawing a 
conclusion, 

7. to reason in other fields, e.g., in arithmetic, 

8. to reason syllogistically, 

9. to detect " catches." 

Common Fallacies in the Argument 

These claims certainly should justify all the time and labor 
given to formal grammar, — providing, of course, that they are 



263] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 13 

true. But who knows that they are? Who knows, indeed, that 
they are not? There are opinions enough expressed, dogmatic- 
ally and without reserve; but, unfortunately for certitude, these 
opinions are often in direct contradiction one with another. 
Introspection and the oracular utterances of those who " have 
observed thousands of boys and girls " must be rejected as con- 
clusive evidence of the value of a study if for no other reason 
than that practically as much will be on one side as on the other. 
Such judgments are unsafe, further, because not infrequently 
the judge considers only that evidence which tends to confirm 
a previously accepted position. 

Two fallacies usually invalidate the conclusions of those who 
base their judgments on observations merely of the product of 
the schools. The first is the post hoc fallacy. Because a pupil 
has studied a formal subject in the grades and afterwards proves 
to have keen intellectual powers, he is adjudged to have attained, 
or at least to have improved, them through such study. No one 
knows, of course, that this is true; the formal subject may have 
made no difference at all, or indeed it may have retarded the 
pupil's intellectual progress. The second is the selective fallacy. 
The result of our promotional systems is grade by grade to 
eliminate among others those of least mental inheritance. As 
a result, the most able are left for the formal studies of the 
upper grades ; and in these studies the best of the selected class 
will naturally take the highest rank. It does not follow that they 
are the best intellectually because of the studies ; whatever effect 
the studies may have upon the pupils, it certainly is true that they 
rank high in the classes because of natural ability and 
application. 

Nor does it prove anything to say that the best members of 
a class when well taught a formal subject enjoy it. As Thorndike 
has shown, 24 there is an instinct of multiform mental activity 
which results in a naive satisfaction. It quite easily follows 
that the greater the difficulties that one can overcome, the greater 
the sense of self-power and consequently of satisfaction. As a 
result of this it need cause no surprise that some pupils become 
tremendously interested by grammatical subtleties. Jespersen 

24 The Original Nature of Man, pp. i4iff. (1913.) 



14 Teachers College Record [264 

has declared, 25 " I think that the study of grammar is really 
more or less useless, but that it is extremely fascinating." But 
just as the opinions of other observers are not conclusive for 
the value of grammar in training the minds of children, so 
the opinion of Jespersen, however great a grammarian he may 
be, is not conclusive against its practical value. 

Lack of Experimental Evidence 

It seems strange, at first thought, that there is at hand no 
experimental evidence concerning the value of formal grammar 
as a discipline. The unanimity with which psychologists have 
discarded the old ideas of universal transfer along with its basis, 
the " faculty psychology," has at least put under suspicion such 
claims for grammar as have been quoted. It would seem that 
the burden of proof is upon those who make the claims. It is 
certainly not convincing for them to repeat, and even to extend, 
claims which, in their origin, were based on a psychology that now 
is held by no one who knows the modern literature of science. 
The burden of proof rests chiefly on those who make the claims 
for formal grammar but partly also on those who now reason, 
by analogy from the results of artificial laboratory experiments, 
against the general value of the subject. As the analogy of the 
" blacksmith's right arm," however convincing it sounded a 
score of years ago, has proved a false one, so likewise analogies 
between exercise in grammar and exercise in canceling A's, 
drawing lines, or throwing a ball, may be, but are far less likely 
to be, unsound. 

But on second thought, it is easy to see why there have not 
been experiments of transfer from formal grammar studied in 
the classroom. In the first place, it is difficult to devise tests 
that convincingly measure mental ability in seeing likenesses, 
forming a judgment, etc. Then it is even more difficult to secure 
for so continued an experiment as is necessary groups of 
children who are sufficiently alike in natural traits and training. 
And, finally, it is tedious to conduct the experiment through 
several months and then to compute the results. No such 
experiment has hitherto been reported, so far as an examination 

25 School Review, XVIII, 530. 



265] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 15 

of the most important English and German journals of psy- 
chology and of pedagogy has revealed. 

Experiment Devised 

Since it is obvious that increase in a child's ability through 
the study of formal grammar to see likenesses and differences, 
to critically test a definition, etc., is not of great worth if this 
increased ability extends no further than the field of grammar 
itself, there was devised a series of tests of these abilities in 
other fields — some artificial and some such as occur in school 
or in life. Tests numbered 13-14, 21-24, 27-34 are from 
Bonser's study of " The Reasoning Ability of Children " ; 26 
tests 43-49 are from Woodworth and Wells's "Association 
Tests " ; 27 and a number of the " catches " in 45-46 are from 
Whipple's "Manual of Mental and Physical Tests." 28 ' 

The Tests 
Practice Sheet 

1. One half of the following sixteen sums are alike in one 
respect and in that respect unlike all the other sums in the 
list. Find the eight sums and mark them with a check (V). 

5 + 3 6 — 2—1 9+1-^5 4 + 11+2 

9 — 4 6-^3 — 2 9X2 — 4 2 + 9 

5 + 5 + 4 6 — 2X5 8 — 2-^4 7X4 — 2 

6^2 + 1 3 + 7><5 2X8 + 7 7 — 2 

2. What rule for spelling can you make that will apply to the 
following derivative words? 

ladies libraries 

babies bodies 

lilies companies 

3. State all the ways in which these words are alike. 

hate have hide 

4. Change this definition in any way to make it correct. 

A quadruped is a domestic animal. 



'Teachers College Contributions to Education No. 37. (1910.) 
Psychological Review Monographs, 1910. 
Warwick and York, Inc., 1910. 



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Teachers College Record 



[266 



5. Animals are carnivorous if they feed on flesh. Mark a 
heavy line through each of the following words that names 
a carnivorous animal. 

lion sheep 

duck tiger 

horse dog 

6. If this argument is unsound, briefly tell why. 

All bricks are made of clay. This vase is made of clay. 
Therefore this vase is a brick. 

7. If a goose standing on one foot weighs eight pounds, what 
will it weigh standing on two feet? 

8. To the right of each of the words in the following list 
write a word that means exactly the opposite. 

left— ugly — 

in — fat — 

noon — incorrect — 



left — right 


fat- 


shoot — bird 


lend — 


oak — tree 


banana- 


color — blue 


tool— 


elbow — arm 


page- 


apple — seed 


clock — 


baby — cries 


dog- 


gallops — horse 


bites — 


sharp — razor 


hot- 


penny — copper 


nail — 



Group I. 

Numbers 1-10 were to test the ability to see likenesses and 
differences. In 1 half the words are singular. (Eight of the 
words also happen to represent inanimate objects, and eight 
others two-syllable words) ; in 2 half are monosyllabic; in 3 
half are nonsense words; in 4 half the numbers are multiples 
of 3 ; in 5 half the leaves are palmate veined ; and in 6 half are 
serrate edged. In 7 and 8 the sentences in each group are alike 
in a number of ways, — a number so large that it is even 
approached by no one pupil. In 9 and 10 there is a difference 
in meaning in each pair of sentences except the second of number 



267] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 17 

10, which was designed as a catch. Unfortunately for the 
success of tests 9 and 10 as a measure, the difference in meaning 
is in some cases more easily seen than expressed. 

Test i 

One half of the following sixteen words are alike in one 
respect and in that respect unlike all the other words in the list. 
Find these eight words and mark them with a check (V). 

biscuit pirate mountain men 
oxen geese fathers-in-law factory- 
scholars knives vessel table 
pole frame children mice 

Test 2 

One half of the following sixteen words are alike in one 
respect and in that respect unlike all the other words in the list. 
Find these eight words and mark them with a check (V). 



queue 


ended 


thorough 


annoy 


bore 


excellent 


as 


educational 


truly- 


manipulate 


sawing 


good 


through 


splint 


sprout 


cat 



Test 3 

One half of the following sixteen words are alike in one 
respect and in that respect unlike all the other words in the list. 
Find these eight words and mark them with a check (V). 

bek ribbon bugler bokmit 

bikreb bukder seb rudest 

butter big begin bak 

sabsed sibtad rob baggage 

Test 4 

One half of the following sixteen numbers are alike in one 
respect and in that respect unlike all the other numbers in the 
list. Find these eight numbers and mark them with a check (V). 
5 21 3 8 



II 


4 


13 


4i 


9 


10 


39 


18 


63 


6 


12 


26 



i8 



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Test 5 

One half of the sixteen leaves pictured below are alike in 
one respect and in that respect unlike all the other leaves 
pictured. Find these eight leaves and write their numbers 
here : — 












(Reduced to I of original size). 



269] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 19 



Test 6 

One half of the sixteen leaves pictured below are alike in 
one respect and in that respect unlike all the other leaves 
pictured. Find these eight leaves and write their numbers 
here : — 




(Reduced to f of original size). 



20 Teachers College Record [270 

Test 7 

State all the ways in which these sentences are alike. 

1. John sang two German songs about birds and trees. 

2. Indian women gave Mary several baskets of ripe fruit. 

3. The American boys and Arthur were busy all day. 

Test 8 

State all the ways in which these sentences are alike. 

1. I think he is guilty, for he is nervous and apparently uncomfort- 
able. 

2. Are you happy merely because this is June? 

3. You fail to be alarmed; but as the doctor has had much experience 
with overworked men, you should take his advice. 



Test 9 

How does the first sentence in each of the following pairs 
differ in meaning from the second? 

1. a) John held the lines tight, 
b) John held the lines tightly. 

2. a) It was Mr. Jones whom I meant. 

b) It was the Mr. Jones whom I meant. 

3. a) The month before he had visited his cousin. 
b) A month before he had visited his cousin. 

Test 10 

How does the first sentence in each of the following pairs 
differ in meaning from the second? 

1. a) There was a crown offered Caesar, 
b) There a crown was offered Caesar. 

2. a) John sent his friends an outline of the plan, 
b) John sent an outline of the plan to his friends. 

3. a) Will only lent me fifty dollars, 
b) Will lent me only fifty dollars. 

Group II. 

Numbers n-12 were to test the ability to judge a definition; 
numbers 13-14 to test the ability to judge a definition and to 
amend it when faulty. 



271] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 21 

Test ii 

In the following definitions, place a small cross, like this, +, 
before those which you think are good ones, doing it as quickly 
as you can. 

a. Definitions of a shoe. 

1. A portion of clothing. 

2. Something black made of leather. 

3. A protective covering for the feet, usually made of leather, 
having a firm bottom or sole and flexible upper portions, an opening 
for the foot being fastened by lacings, buttons, or buckles. 

4. Something to wear on the feet. 

5. A necessary article costing from one to five or six dollars. 

b. Definitions of an island. 

1. A piece of land out in the water. 

2. A small body of land. 

3. A body of land entirely surrounded by water. 

4. Cuba is an island. 

5. A portion of land rising above the surrounding level. 

c. Definitions of to explode. 

I. To burst suddenly with a loud noise. 



To knock all to pieces. 

To make a very loud noise. 

To fill the air with a tumultuous roar. 

To blow up. 



Test 12 



In the following definitions, place a small cross, like this, +, 
before those which you think are good ones, doing it as quickly 
as you can. 

a. Definitions of a chair. 

1. A piece of household furniture. 

2. A movable seat with a back intended for one person. 

3. A piece of furniture on which to sit. 

4. Rocking chairs are comfortable chairs. 

5. A single seat having a back. 

b. Definitions of to write. 

1. To make words with a pen or pencil. 

2. To make characters which stand for ideas. 

3. To use a pen or pencil. 



22 Teachers College Record [272 

4. To make marks on any kind of surface with any kind of an 
instrument which will express one's ideas so that another may 
understand them. 

5. To write a letter. 

c. Definitions of a buggy. 

1. A buggy is black. 

2. A buggy is something to ride in. 

3. A buggy is a light, four wheeled vehicle, with or without a 
top or covering, designed for carrying two or three persons. 

4. A buggy is drawn by horses. 

5. A buggy may have rubber tires. 



Test 13 

Some of the following definitions are incorrect. Change in 
any way to make them exactly true. 

1. A square is a figure all of whose sides are equal and all of whose 
angles are equal. 

2. Writing is the expression of facts to the eye. 

3. The circumference of a circle is a curved line which has no be- 
ginning and no end. 

' 4. An island is a body of land, usually of moderate extent, entirely 
surrounded by water. 



Test 14 

Some of the following definitions are incorrect. Change in 
any way necessary to make them exactly true. 

1. Reading is getting the sounds of words from seeing them. 

2. A prime number is a number divisible without a remainder by 
no whole number except itself and one. 

3. A sphere is a body of wood all points in whose surface are equally 
distant from one point within. 

4. A bay is a small piece of the ocean near the land. 

Group III. 

Numbers 15-24 were to test the ability to thoroughly apply 
a definition. In numbers 21-24 the children were told to apply 
each definition whether or not they believed it to be a good one. 



2 7 3] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 23 

Test 15 

A figure is radially symmetrical if it has parts exactly alike 
regularly arranged about a center. 

Mark a heavy line through each figure that is radially 
symmetrical. 






& 

£? 




4> 







l 





(Reduced to § of original size). 



Teachers College Record 



[274 



Test 16 

A figure is bilaterally symmetrical if it can be divided by a 
straight line into two parts that are exactly alike. 

Mark a heavy line through each figure that is bilaterally 
symmetrical. 




£o> \f © 








& 







(Reduced to 1 of original size). 



2 7 5] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



25 



Test iy 

Figures are similar when they are exactly alike in shape. 
Find pairs of similar figures and write in parentheses the 
numbers representing each pair. E.g., (21, 53). 



O ^ 








/3 /<? 



n 



(Reduced to f of original size). 



S> Q 



JO It 




6 O 



is- 







/& 



# & & a 



/? 2,0 



26 



Teachers College Record 



[276 



Test 18 

Figures are congruent when they are exactly alike in shape 
and size. Find pairs of congruent figures and write in 
parentheses the numbers representing each pair. E.g., (21, 53). 



P OZ7 

/ «£ 3 

O 






10 




m 




§ 



n 




/A, 





IS /& 



Q <P> o ^ 

/7 VS /<? -20 



(Reduced to f of original size). 



277] Formal English Grammar as a Disciplnie 27 

Test 19 

Velocity means rate of motion. 

Make a check (V) by five of the following sentences that 
express velocity. 

1. The bullet flew from the gun to the target. 

2. The bird flew faster and faster every minute. 

3. The lightning leaped from cloud to cloud. 

4. The train was running twenty miles an hour. 

5. The train gradually came to a standstill. 

6. Sound moves 1096 feet a second. 

7. The normal heart beats seventy-two times a minute. 

8. The earth revolves once every twenty-four hours. 

9. Fear increased the boy's speed. 

10. He ran more rapidly every second. 

11. The horse paces a mile in less than two minutes. 

12. The farther he went, the more slowly he walked. 



Test 20 

Acceleration means change of rate of motion. 
Make a check (V) by five of the following sentences that 
express acceleration. 

1. The bullet flew from the gun to the target. 

2. The bird flew faster and faster every minute. 

3. The lightning leaped from cloud to cloud. 

4. The train was going twenty miles an hour. 

5. The train gradually came to a standstill. 

6. Sound moves 1096 feet a second. 

7. The normal heart beats seventy-two times a minute. 

8. The earth revolves once every twenty-four hours. 

9. Fear increased the boy's speed. 

10. He ran more rapidly every second. 

11. The horse paces a mile in less than two minutes. 

12. The farther he went, the more slowly he walked. 



Test 21 

Wealth has been defined as everything, except man's own 
thoughts and acts, that has the power of satisfying human wants 
and that also can be sold. 



28 



Teachers College Record 



[278 



Make a check (V) by eight of the following which, according 
to this definition, represent wealth. 



A hat 

A toothache 

Religion 

Electricity 

Poison 

An ounce of gold 

A barrel of flour 

A smile 



9- 


The Panama Canal 


10. 


Sweeping a floor 


II. 


Sunshine 


12. 


Freedom 


13- 


Cultivating a crop of cotton 


14. 


A mosquito 


IS- 


A woman's hair 


16. 


A blush 



Test 22 

Money has been defined as stamped metal that serves as a 
common medium of exchange and measure of value. 

Make a check (V) by eight of the following which, according 
to this definition, represent money. 



I. 


A bank note 




9- 


A nickel 


2. 


An ounce of silver 




10. 


A United States treasury note 


3- 


A dime 




11. 


Gold dust 


4- 


A Pompeian coin 




12. 


A gold two and a half dollar 


5- 


A dollar 






piece 


6. 


A gold twenty-dollar 


piece 


13- 


A gold medal 


7- 


Rockefeller's check 


for ten 


14. 


A bank draft 




dollars 




IS- 


A quarter 


8. 


A penny 




16. 


A half-dollar 



Test 23 

A transitive verb is a verb that expresses an act which passes 
over from the actor and affects that which is named by the 
object. 

Make a check (V) by each of the following sentences which, 
according to this definition, contains a transitive verb. 



The boy cracked the plate. 
The elephant lifted his master. 
The doctor made a mistake. 
He walked home yesterday. 
He seems a perfect gentleman. 
The task was finished before noon. 
The baby hurt himself. 



279] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 29 

8. He passed the church on his way to school. 

9. The merchant owed his creditors a thousand dollars. 

10. She heard a noise. 

11. She tore the paper. 

12. The rat smelled some cheese. 



Test 24 

A phrase is a group of words not containing a subject and 
predicate and used like an adjective or an adverb. 

Make a check (V) by each sentence which, according to this 
definition, contains between the marks of parentheses a phrase 
and nothing besides the phrase and its modifiers. 

1. A man (in the road) scared the horse. 

2. She sat (on the porch and rocked). 

3. He shifted uneasily (from side to side). 

4. (Both boys and girls) attend our school. 

5. The man (of whom I spoke yesterday) came today. 

6. She (may have finished) her work. 

7. She sang (of the days that are now passed away). 

8. She likes (either singing or dancing). 

9. I said, (" That is not true.") 

10. "That statement," (he replied,) "is correct." 

11. (According to my count,) that is the wrong number. 

12. He was fishing (in the river). 



Group IV. 

Numbers 25-26 were to test the ability to make a rule. That 
the children might take the first step — see the likeness in each 
group — similar words were placed in each column. The desired 
rules would, in substance, read as follows : Test 25. "A vowel 
at the end of a monosyllabic word is retained before a suffix 
beginning with a consonant, and dropped before a suffix begin- 
ning with a vowel." Test 26. " Before a suffix words of one 
syllable retain a final -y; words of more than one syllable drop 
a final -y." The children were told that the rule might be true 
of no other words than those given in the test. 



3<d Teachers College Record [280 

Test 25 

What rule for spelling can you make that will apply to the 
following derivative words? 

paleness movable 

excitement hating 

ninety tamable 

fivefold blaming 

lovely servant 

improvement negress 

Test 26 

What rule for spelling can you make that will apply to the 
following derivative words? 

shyness pitiful 

dryer iciest 

crying beautifier 

slyest merciless 

spryness modifier 

buying multiplied 

Group V. 

Numbers 27-30 were to test the ability to judge reasons. 

Test 27 

The following reasons have been given why New York has 
become a larger city than Boston. As quickly as you can, place 
a cross like this, +, before each reason that you think a good 
one: 

1. New York is on an island. 

2. More foreigners live in New York than in Boston. 

3. New York is on a large river coming from a rich agricultural 
region. 

4. Mr. Rockefeller has a fine home in New York. 

5. New York has more churches than Boston. 

6. New York has better communication with the States lying to 
the west. 

7. New York has elevated railroads. 

8. New York is in the midst of a rich fruit and agricultural district. 

9. New York is nine or ten years older than Boston. 
10. New York has a Republican governor. 



281] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 31 

Test 28 

These reasons have been given to show that oak wood is better 
than pine for making furniture. Check the good reasons. 

1. Oak wood is harder than pine. 

2. Oak trees have acorns; pine trees do not. 

3. Oak wood takes a finer polish than pine. 

4. Oak trees have more beautiful leaves. 

5. Oak trees make good homes for squirrels. 

6. Pine wood will not last so long as oak. 
Pine is more easily dented and defaced than oak. 
When polished and varnished, oak is much more beautiful than 



pine 

9 
10 



Pine trees are sometimes used for Christmas trees. 
Oak trees are easier to climb than pine trees. 



Test 29 

The following reasons have been given to show why oranges 
grow better in Florida than in New Jersey. Check the good 
reasons. 



There are in Florida many negroes who work very cheaply. 

Florida has warm summer weather almost the whole year. 

There are no alligators in New Jersey. 

Florida very rarely has hard frosts. 

New Jersey is not so large as Florida. 

Florida was settled earlier than New Jersey. 

New Jersey grows many fine peaches. 

Florida has a very moist, warm climate. 

Florida is a word meaning the land of flowers. 

Florida is a popular winter resort. 



Test 30 

Among these reasons why horses are better than cattle for 
driving and working animals, check those which you think are 
good reasons. 



Horses are more intelligent than cattle. 

Cattle are not so tall as horses. 

Horses like corn, oats, and hay. 

Horses are much more active and walk faster than cattle. 

Cattle are extensively used for food. 



32 Teachers College Record [282 

6. Horses are much more graceful and beautiful than cattle. 

7. The skins of horses are sometimes made into gloves. 

8. Horses are more easily trained and controlled than cattle. 

9. President Roosevelt likes to ride on horseback. 

10. Horses have more rapid and varied gaits than cattle. 

Group VI. 

Numbers 31-32 were to test the ability of children to select 
from unorganized data all necessary facts and to use only those 
in reaching a conclusion. The fourth problem in number 31 
was, unfortunately, so worded that it was answered usually by 
a mere affirmative or negative, neither of which furnished con- 
clusive information. The third problem in number 32 became 
with the children a matter of simple arithmetic; they were too 
little sophisticated to ever complicate the problem by introducing 
the slope. For these reasons both problems had to be discarded. 

Test 31 

Give answers to all of the following questions that you can. 
If in any case you find it impossible to give a definite answer, 
state why. 

1. In the following sentence should one say remains or remain? — 

" The hunter is chasing the deer that \ rema * ns I j n the park." 

I remain j 

2. A pole driven three feet into the bottom of a pond projects four 
feet above the surface of the water. How long is the pole? 

3. If one-half of the ceiling is painted blue, half the remaining sur- 
face red, and the remainder white, how can I find the area of the ceiling 
if I know the length, height, and width of the room? 

4. A wealthy man in a small town refused to join his neighbors in 
subscribing money for the support of a great public good. Do you think 
his neighbors right in condemning him for this? 

Test 32 

Give answers to all of the following questions that you can. If 
in any case you find it impossible to give a definite answer, state 
why. 

1. Faculty means an organized body of teachers giving instruction 
in an institution of higher learning. Should we say " The faculty 
is " or "The faculty are "? 



283] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 33 

2. A vine grows a certain number of inches in four days — one hot, 
one cold, one rainy, and one clear. How can you find the growth for 
each day? 

3. A man has a yard thirty feet wide. He sets it off from the 
street by a fence built of pickets three inches wide, placed three inches 
apart. The street slopes so that one end of the fence is three feet lower 
than the other. How many pickets does he use in the fence? 

4. Dr. Jones intentionally cut Mr. Smith with a knife, so that for 
three weeks Mr. Smith was unable to work. During much of this time 
Mr. Smith suffered considerable pain. His wages were twenty dollars 
a week. What damages, if any, do you think should be assessed against 
Dr. Jones in Mr. Smith's favor? 

Group VII. 

Numbers 33-36, as devised by Bonser, were to test the reason- 
ing ability of children in arithmetic. Owing to a misprint in 
Bonser's monograph, the first problem in number 35 was made 
too difficult and hence it was discarded in making up the returns 
of this experiment. 

Test 33 
Get the answers to these problems as quickly as you can. 

1. If 54 of a gallon of oil costs 9 cents, what will 7 gallons cost? 

2. John sold 4 sheep for $5 each. He kept y 2 of the money and 
with the other y 2 he bought lambs at $2 each. How many did he buy? 

3. A pint of water weighs a pound. What does a gallon weigh? 

4. At 12^ cents each, how much more will 6 tablets cost than 10 
pens at 5 cents each? 

5. At 15 cents a yard, how much will 7 feet of cloth cost? 



Test 34 
Get the answers to these problems as quickly as you can. 

1. A man whose salary is $20 a week spends $14 a week. In how 
many weeks can he save $300? 

2. How many pencils can you buy for 50 cents at the rate of 2 for 
5 cents? 

3. A man bought land for $100. He sold it for $120, gaining $5 
an acre. How many acres were there? 

4. A man spent 2 /z OI his money and had $8 left. How much had 
he at first? 

5. The uniforms for a baseball nine cost $2.50 each. The shoes cost 
$2 a pair. What was the total cost of uniforms and shoes for the nine? 



34 Teachers College Record [284 

Test 35 
Get the answers to these problems as quickly as you can. 

1. 132 plus what number equals 36? 

2. If John had 15 cents more than he spent today he would have 40 
cents. How much did he spend today? 

3. What number minus 7 equals 23? 

4. If James had 4 times as much money as George, he would have 
$16. How much money has George? 

5. What number added to 16 gives a number 4 less than 27? 



Test 36 
Get the answers to these problems as quickly as you can. 

1. What number subtracted 12 times from 30 will leave a remainder 
of 6? 

2. If a train travels half a mile in a minute, what is its rate per hour? 

3. What number minus 16 equals 20? 

4. What number doubled equals 2 times 3? 

5. If 7 multiplied by some number equals 63, what is the number? 

Group VIII. 

Numbers 37-40 were to test the ability to reason syllogistically. 
The fourth syllogism in number 40 had to be discarded as the 
children, because of their ignorance of prime numbers, could 
not discover the fallacy in the argument. 



Test 37 

Some of these arguments are faulty. Find each one that 
is unsound and in the blank space below it briefly tell why. 

1. I am not able to buy a canoe nor can I be so mean as to steal one. 
Consequently I am sure I shall never have a canoe. 

2. Birds can sing. I am larger and wiser than any bird; therefore 
I can sing. 

3. All Belgians speak French. Some linguists do not speak French. 
Therefore some linguists are not Belgians. 

4. It is admitted that if a man is stingy he will refuse to give money 
for charity. As Mr. Jones does not give money for charity, he is cer- 
tainly stingy. 



285] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 35 

Test 38 

Some of these arguments are faulty. Find each one that 
is unsound and in the blank space below it briefly tell why. 

1. As no scholar would make such a mistake, every man who says 
that is no scholar. 

2. If John is president, William is secretary. But John is not presi- 
dent. Therefore William is not secretary. 

3. Mr. Jones says that potatoes should be planted in " the dark of 
the moon," for only those of his potatoes planted then have produced 
good crops. 

4. Many great men have been wretched penmen. As I am a wretched 
penman, it is probable that I shall be a great man. 



Test 39 

Some of these arguments are faulty. Find each one that 
is unsound and in the blank space below it briefly tell why. 

1. The pupils of our school are boys and girls. The masked group 
that you saw are pupils of our school; therefore they were boys and girls. 

2. I have never seen a purple cow, nor have I ever heard of one. 
Therefore there is no purple cow. 

3. The flowers of the field do not toil, yet how beautiful they are. 
I should like to be beautiful. Therefore I will not toil. 

4. Mr. Smith is either a Democrat or a Republican. But Mr. Smith 
is not a Democrat. Therefore he is a Republican. 



Test 40 

Some of these arguments are faulty. Find each one that 
is unsound and in the blank space below it briefly tell why. 

1. Mary, who is five feet tall, looks charming in a blue dress. There- 
fore Edna, who is also five feet tall, will also look charming in a blue 
dress. 

2. This statement is either true or false. It can not be true; there- 
fore it is false. 

3. If John is president, William is secretary. But William is not 
secretary. Therefore John is not president. 

4. 1 plus any power of 4 equals a prime number, for I have raised 
four to its first fifteen powers, adding one each time, and found that 
each sum is a prime number. 



36 Teachers College Record [286 

Group IX. 
Numbers 41-42 were to test the ability to detect catches. 

Test 41 

In each of the following sentences there is a " catch." Tell 
where the nonsense in each case is. 

1. An unfortunate bicycle rider broke his head and died instantly; 
he was picked up and carried to a hospital, but they do not think he 
will recover. 

2. On the lawn of a clever inventor is a cast iron dog that opens 
its mouth every time it sees an automobile pass. 

3. We met a man who was finely dressed; he was walking along the 
street with his hands in his pockets and twirling his cane. 

4. The engineer said that the more cars he had on his train the 
faster he could go up the hill. 

5. The other day I was walking to Boston when I met a fine team 
of horses drawing a wagon : there were two men on the front seat, 
and a man, a woman, and a baby on the back seat; so five people were 
going to Boston. 

Test 42 

In each of the following sentences there is a " catch." Tell 
where the nonsense in each case is. 

1. John is taller than I am; Henry is taller than John; and I am 
taller than Henry. 

2. I have three brothers : Paul, Ernest, and myself. 

3. Among the ruins of Pompeii was found a coin bearing the inscrip- 
tion 156 B. C. 

4. A beggar died leaving an only sister; yet that sister never had a 
brother. 

5. A soldier who had lost a foot and the lower half of one arm 
once when drunk wished to show his courage; so he grasped a sword 
and cut off his hand. 

Group X. 

Numbers 43-46 were to test the ability to make prompt and 
accurate associations ; numbers 47-49, to follow directions. 
These were given as check tests, as it was maintained by some 
that the abilities involved would be affected more by general 
development than by any special study. 



287] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 37 



Test 43 

To the right of each of the words in the following list writq 

a word that means exactly the opposite. 

long lost 
soft wet 
white high 
far dirty- 
up east 
smooth day- 
early yes 
dead wrong 
hot empty 
asleep top 



Test 44 

To the right of each of the words in the following list write 
a word that means exactly the opposite. 

north rich 

sour dark 

out front 

weak love 

good tall 

after open 

above summer 

sick new 

slow come 

large male 

(By means of the Practice Sheet it was explained to the chil- 
dren that in Tests 45 and 46 they were to make to the words 
in the single column the same kind of reaction that is indicated 
in the double column.) 



38 



Teachers College Record 



[288 



Test 45 



Eye — see 

Monday — Tuesday 
Do— did 
Bird — sings 
Hour — minute 
Straw — hat 
Cloud — rain 
Hammer — tool 
Uncle — aunt 
Dog— puppy 
Little — less 
Wash — face 
House — room 
Sky — blue 
Swim — water 
Once — one 
Cat — fur 
Pan — tin 
Buy — sell 
Oyster — shell 



Ear — 
April — 
See — 
Dog- 
Minute— 
Leather — 
Sun — 
Dictionary- 
Brother— 
Cat- 
Much— 
Sweep — 
Book- 
Grass — 
Fly- 
Twice — 
Bird- 
Table— 
Come — 
Banana — 



Test 46 



Good — bad 
Eagle — bird 
Eat — bread 
Fruit — orange 
Sit — chair 
Double — two 
England — London 
Chew — teeth 
Pen — write 
Water — wet 
He — him 
Boat — water 
Crawl — snake 
Horse — colt 
Nose — face 
Bad — worse 
Hungry — food 
Hat — head 
Ship — captain 
Man — woman 



Long- 
Shark — 
Drink— 
Vegetable- 
Sleep — 
Triple — 
France — 
Smell — 
Knife- 
Fire — 
She- 
Train — 
Swim — 
Cow — 
Toe — 
Good — 
Thirsty — 
Glove — 
Army — 
Boy— 




289] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 39 

Test 47 

Cross out the smallest dot: » • • 

Fat a comma between these two letters: G H 

How many ears has a cat ? 

Make a line across this line : 

Show by a cross which costs more: a hat or an orange. 

Write 8 at the thinnest part of this line : — — — 

Write any word of three letters. 

Put a dot In one of the white squares : 

Cross out the word you know best: fish* brol, matzig, 

Leave this just as it is : ^T> > (q) 

Mark the line that looks most like a hill 

How many t's are there in twist ? 

Dot the line that has no dot over it : 

Write o after the largest number: 3 86 12 

Mark the name of a large city: London, painter. 

Make a letter Z out of this: / 

Join these two lines: — — 

Write s in the middle square t ' ' LJ 
Write any number smaller than bo. 
Put a question mark after this sentence 



4 o Teachers College Record [290 

Test 48 
Cross out the g in tiger. 
Write 2 between the two dots* • • ■ ■ 
How many feet make a yard ? 
Write + over the longest word; It rained yesterday. 
Put a dot below this line : ■ 

Write the sum of these numbers: % 
Make a boy's name by adding one letter to Joh_ 
Make a cross in the circle: / \ V-/ 
What comes next after D in the alphabet? 
Write 7 in the largest square: Q I | LJ 
Cross out the blackest letter in TEXAS 
Write g on the egg-shaped figure: sJ \y CO"* 
Make two dots between these lines: \V— "^^^* 
Put the sign = where it belongs: 3 + 2 5. 
Write here,.,., the middle letter of get. 

Put a nose on this face: * J 

XXX 
Add a cross and make these rows equal : x X X X 

Put a dot in the circle, below the center : [' J 

Draw a line around the three dots: • * • • • 

Cross out the last word in this sentence. 



291] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 41 

Test 49 

With your pencil make a dot over any one of these 
letters F G H I J, and a comma after the 
longest of these three words : boy mother girl 
Then, if Christmas comes in March, make a cross right 
here. . . . but if not, pass along to the next question, and 

tell where the sun rises If you believe that 

Edison discovered America, cross out what you just 
wrote, but if it was some one else, put in a number to 

complete this sentence : " A horse has feet." 

Write yes, no matter whether China is in Africa or not 

; and then give a wrong answer to this question : 

" How many days are there in the week ? " 

Write any letter except g just after this comma, and 
then write no if 2 times 5 are 10 Now, if Tues- 
day comes after Monday, make two crosses here ; 

but if not, make a circle here or else a square here 

Be sure to make three crosses between these 

two names of boys : George Henry. Notice 

these two numbers : 3, 5. If iron is heavier than 

water, write the larger number here , but if iron 

is lighter write the smaller number here Show 

by a cross when the nights are longer : in summer ? . . . . 
in winter?. . . . Give the correct answer to this ques- 
tion : " Does water run uphill ? " and repeat 

your answer here ■. . Do nothing here (5 + 7 = 

) , unless you skipped the preceding question ; 

but write the first letter of your first name and the last 
letter of your last name at the ends of this line : 

Group XL 

Numbers 50-53 were to test the ability of the children to 
correct errors and point off sentences. Although these matters 
were outside the primary interests of this study, they were too 
closely related to be omitted. In the schools to be reported in 
Part IV, the results of these tests are more important than in the 
Horace Mann School, where during the formal grammar periods 
no language work was attempted. 



42 Teachers College Record [292 

Test 50 
Mark out the incorrect word in each sentence. 

1. You-j was ino doubt right. 

( were ) 

2. He had-l a . (-himself on the bed. 

( lain j 

3. There \ 1S la few of my friends who have made the trip. 

I are j 

4. i , T , ° did you say called? 
( Whom 

5. He is stronger than ) v. 

I me J 

6. I said that it was -Pf I. 

( him ) 

7. Each of the boys \ was V eager to go. 

( were ) 

8. Nero was one of the worst kings that \ , as i ever ruled over 

( have ) 

Rome. 

9. After he hadi set i awhile, he left. 

(sat ) 

10. He \ , vseem to know. 

( doesn t ) 

11. Not one of our friends i was (-present. 

j were ) 

I Who ) 
I2 ' /Whom f are y0U talking about? 

13. I knew it to be i he i. 

(him ) 

14. Everybody was sure that \ , s . V lessons had been good. 

( their ) 

15. One hundred dollars V s l enough to pay for the boat. 

(are ) 

16. The news -| 1S v gathered by reporters. 

(are J 

Test 51 

Make a check (V) before five of the following sentences that 
contain no language error. 

1. He couldn't hardly wait. 

2. I feel good after a cold bath. 

3. He ain't ready yet. 

4. I am fairly well today. 

5. She was real pretty, I thought. 

6. He hadn't ought to do that. 



2 93] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 43 

7. I have got a deep cold. 

8. He talks too loud. 

9. He stepped off of the track. 

10. He got out of town at once. 

11. Page ten is all the farther that I read. 

12. He seen his error. 

13. He hurt hisself. 

14. Between you, who were born lucky, and I, who was born rich, 
there is little difference. 

15. It is a long ways to Alaska. 

16. It will all come right in the end, I am sure. 

Test 52 

Correct eight language errors in this passage. 

At first the faculty of the college was by no means of one opinion 
regarding the boys guilt. Sentiment was turned against the young men, 
however, by the attitude of Johnson when called before the president. 

" Who do you think stole them apples ? Me ? " he exclaimed angrily. 
" Lewis and myself would not do that kind of a thing." 

After that, the tide turned against the boys. Regretting that it was 
necessary, it was decided by the faculty that Johnson and Lewis be 
suspended for a month. The sentence seemed severe; but the students, 
knowing more of the facts than had been laid before the president, 
acknowledged it to have been just. 

Test 53 

Insert capital letters and the proper punctuation marks so as 
to indicate the sentences in the following passages. 

I. 

What a cozy little room this is the moment I opened the door I fell 
in love with the place do you see the great open fireplace at the end 
of the room it will hold a four-foot log on the panel above it you see 
the motto of good cheer on each side is a many-paned window and a 
glimpse of the garden the windows just now are framed in brilliant 
red leaves of woodbine is there anything so homelike as books and a fire 
here are all kinds of books ranged in cases on each side of the room 
what treasures for a rainy day now I will pull out a chair before the 
fire and snuggle down in luxury with a story book. 

II. 

The squire was strong and tall, being over six feet in his stockings, 
he was fair, with a broad face, roughened and reddened by his travels, 
which had carried him no one knows how far, among the neighbors 



44 Teachers College Record [294 

the squire was held in high esteem, for no one else had been so far 
or could spin such yarns as he, his position in the county being that 
of a petty king, he spent his days, as he had a perfect right to do, in 
riding about and giving advice, and his nights, as he should not have 
done, in drinking deeply and gambling with a few chosen cronies. 

Group XII. 

Number 54 was to test the knowledge of formal grammar after 
the training period. 

Test 54 (for the Horace Mann School) 

In, the cities there are many things to do, but it is unfortunate that 
some of them cost many dollars more than people who are. not rich 
are able to afford. This makes a few of these people unhappy; but if 
they were given fortunes, they might still think themselves ill-treated. 

1. From these sentences select and write 

a) an adjective clause, 

b) an adverb clause. (Grade, 20) 

2. Tell the construction (syntax, use) of the following words: 

a) there 

b) to do 

c) to afford 

d) unhappy (Grade, 40) 

3. Test this sentence for a predicate attribute of the object 
(objective complement) by the following definition: "A 
predicate attribute of the object represents the effect of the 
act expressed in the predicate on that which the object repre- 
sents." — " The carpenter planed the pine board smooth." 
(Grade, 30) 

4. Tell why the second group of words is (or is not) a 
sentence : " Last summer there was a circus in the town where 
I visited. The procession passing down the street by my grand- 
mother's home." (Grade, 10) 

Test 54 (for the other schools) 

In the cities there are many things to do, but it is unfortunate that 
some of them cost many dollars more than people who are not rich are 
able to afford. This makes a few of these people unhappy; but if they 
were given fortunes, they might still think themselves ill-treated. 



295] Formal English Grammar as a Disciplnie 45 

1. If either of these sentences is compound, write here the 
conjunction that joins the two members. (Grade, 10) 

2. From these sentences select and write 

a) an adjective clause, 

b) an adverb clause, 

c) a noun clause. (Grade, 10 each.) 

3. Parse the verb phrase were given. (Grade, 10) 

4. Tell the construction (syntax, use) of the following words: 

a) there f) than 

b) to do g) who 

c) it h) to afford 

d) that i) unhappy 

e) dollars j) fortunes. (Grade, 5 each.) 

Scoring 

An attempt was made to have the tests that were administered 
in January equal in difficulty to the corresponding ones that 
were administered at the beginning of the school year and again 
in April. But inasmuch as it is all but impossible to foresee 
details that will cause difficulties peculiar to the child mind, 
it was necessary to equalize the tests somewhat by the method 
of scoring employed. Through the courtesy of Superintendent 
E. C. Broome and of Professor F. G. Bonser, a number of the 
tests were given in the seventh and eighth grades at Mt. Vernon, 
New York, and at the Speyer School, in order to ascertain their 
relative difficulty. Largely on the basis of the information thus 
obtained the scoring was adjusted so as to secure results easily 
comparable. Inasmuch as the gain or loss of one group of 
children is significant only when compared with that of the 
other, the changes in any score did not affect the truth that it 
expressed. 

(All scores are expressed as averages.) 

Tests 1-6 
8 correctly checked =10 
7 or 9 correctly checked = 4 
6 correctly checked = 2 
(For comparison, the score of Test 1 is multiplied by 2.) 



46 Teachers College Record [296 

Tests 7-8 

Likeness in a common letter = .5 

(with a maximum of 2X.5) 
Any other common element = 1 
Each error = — .5 

(For comparison, the score of Test 8 is multiplied by 2.) 

Tests 9-10 

Each correct answer = 1 
(For comparison, the score of Test 9 is multiplied by 7.) 

Tests 1 1- 1 2 

a b c 
12345 12345 12345 

Test 11 -2,-4, 7, 2,-5; 2,-4, 7,-2,-3; 7,-3,-3,-3, 3- 

Test 12...... -2, 7, 1,-7, 2; 1, 1,-4, 7,-3; -7, 2, 7,-3,-4- 

Unattempted = — 10 
(For comparison, the score of Test 12 is multiplied by 5/4.) 

Tests 13-14 

Each definition correctly changed = 2 
(The correct definition in each test was not counted a score 
unless it was in some way approved.) 

Tests 15-16 

Each figure correctly marked === 2 

Each figure incorrectly marked = — 2 

Unattempted = — 8 

(For comparison, the score of Test 16 is multiplied by 2.) 

Tests 17-18 

Each pair correctly made = 1 

Error in star figures = — 1 

Each other error = — 2 

Unattempted or meaningless = — 8 



2 97] ;i.J Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 47 

Tests 19-22 

Each correct check = 1 

Each error = — 1 

Unattempted == — 8 

(For comparison, the score of Test 21 was multiplied by 3.) 

Test 23 

Each correct check = 1 

Each check of numbers 4, 5, 6 = — 2 
Any other incorrect check = — 1 
Unattempted = — 6 

Test 24 

Each correct check = 1 

Each check of numbers 2, 4, 8, 9, 10 = — 2 
Any other incorrect check = — 1 

Unattempted = — 6 









Tests 25-26 


















Each correct rule 


= I 
















Tests 27-30 














1 


2 


3 4 5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Test 27 - 
Test 28 
Test 29 - 
Test 30 


-2, 

2, 

-1, 

3, 


1, 

— 3, 
3, 

— 2, 


3, —3, —2, 
3> 3» 3» 
3' 3» 3> 

— 3. Z,—2, 


3> - 
2, 

-3, ~ 
2, - 


-if 

3> 

-2, 

-3. 


3, 
3, 
3, 
3, 


i, ■ 

— 3, • 

— 3, ■ 

— 3, 


— 3- 

— 3- 

— 3- 
2. 



Unattempted = — 6 
(These scores are the medians of scores attributed by five 
trained psychologists and four graduate students. For com- 
parison, the score of Test 27 was multiplied by 1.6.) 

Tests 31-32 

Each correct answer = 1 
(For reasons already given number 4 in 31 and number 3 
in 32 were discarded. The total score is then divided by 3.) 



48 Teachers College Record [298 

Tests 33-36 

Each correct answer = 1 
(Owing to a misprint in Bonser's report, 32 in the first 
example of Test 35 became 132, thus causing more difficulty 
than was intended. Hence this example was discarded. The 
total score is then divided by the number of examples in each 
test.) 

Tests 37-40 

Each fallacy explained = 1 
(The sound syllogism is scored in each test if it is left blank, 
providing the others are attempted. Owing to the ignorance by 
many children of prime numbers, number 4 of Test 40 was 
discarded and all scores are reported on the basis of single 
syllogisms. For comparison, the score of Test 38 is multiplied 
by 1.6.) 

Test 41 

Minor catch detected in number 2 =.5 
Each other catch detected = 1 

Test 42 

Each catch detected in numbers 1, 2, 5 = 1 
Each catch detected in numbers 3, 4 =2 
(For comparison, the score is multiplied by 1.25.) 

Tests 43-44 

Each opposite correctly given = 1 
Each error = — 1 

Tests 45-46 

Each correct reaction = 1 
Each minor error = — .5 

Each other error = — 1 

Tests 47-49 
Each correct reaction = 1 



299] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 49 

Test 50 

Each sentence corrected = 1 
Each error = — 1 

(The score is reported as the total score divided by the 
number attempted.) 

Test 51 

Each correct check = 1 
Each incorrect check = — 2 

Test 52 

Each correct change = 2 

Each incorrect change = — 2 

Each error checked but not corrected = 1 

Test 53 I. 

Each terminal punctuation = 1 
Each ? or ! = additional 1 

Each capital letter = 1 

Each error = — 2 

Unattempted = — 8 

Test 53 II. 

Each terminal punctuation = 1 
Each ? or ! = additional 1 

Each capital letter = 1 

Each error = — 2 

Unattempted = — 4 



PART III 

CONDITIONS SECURED AT THE HORACE MANN 

SCHOOL 

Through the courtesy of Principal Henry Carr Pearson, 
conditions as nearly ideal as could be expected for such an 
extended experiment were provided in the Horace Mann 
Elementary School. Two seventh grades, consisting of the 
children of well-to-do parents and of members of the university 
family, were put at the disposal of the experimenter for three 
thirty-minute periods a week during six months. During this 
time the number of children in each grade varied from twenty- 
five to thirty. So far as could be ascertained, there had been 
an absolutely chance division of the children : most of those in 
each room had been in the school during a term of years, about 
an equal number in each room had had kindergarten training, 
they were about equally divided as to sex, etc. 



The Children and School Conditions 

But inasmuch as the numbers were too small for dependence 
to be put in the fairness of the division by chance, an attempt 
was made to determine the relative abilities of the children. At 
the end of the year the teacher in charge of each room, the 
special teacher of arithmetic (who also was in charge of 
Room II), the special teacher of history, and the teachers who 
had had nearly all the children in the sixth grade during the 
preceding year were asked to rank them in five classes according 
to their general intellectual ability. Following are the results: 

50 [300 



3°i] 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



5i 



TABLE I 

Showing the Rankings of the Children in General Intellectual 
Ability by the Teacher of Geography. 



Rank 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



Number in 
Room I. 

4 

7 

11 

5 
2 



Weight 

5 = 

4 : 
3 - 

2 : 
I : 



20 
28 

33 

IO 

2 



Number in 
Room II. 
6 

9 
8 

3 
3 



Weight 

5 = 

4 = 

3 = 

2 = 

1 = 



30 

36 

24 

6 

3 



93 



99 



TABLE II 

Showing the Rankings of the Children in General Intellectual 
Ability by the Teacher of History. 



Number in 

Rank Room I. Weight 

1 4 x 5 = 20 

2 7 x 4 — 28 

3 9 x 3 = 27 

4 7 x 2 = 14 

5 2x1=2 



Number in 
Room II. Weight 



5 = 40 

4 = 28 
3 = 27 
2=6 
1=2 



9i 



103 



Between the rankings of these two teachers there is, as 
measured by the Spearman Footrule Method, a positive corre- 
lation of .79. 

Tabulating and weighting the rankings by the four teachers, 
the rankings of the other two teachers not being presented here 
in detail, we have: 

TABLE III 





Number in 






Number in 






ink 


Room I. 


Weight 


Room II. 


Weight 


1 


20 


X 


5 = 100 




25 


X 


5 = 125 


2 


27 


X 


4 = 108 




3i 


X 


4 == 124 


3 


37 


X 


3 = in 




30 


X 


3 = 90 


4 


22 


X 


2 = 44 




13 


X 


2 = 26 


5 


5 


X 


1 = 5 




12 


X 


1 = 12 



368 



377 



52 Teachers College Record [302 

These three tables seem to show that in the judgments of the 
teachers who best knew the children the two groups as wholes 
varied very little in their natural intellectual ability. So far 
as these three tables are indicative, however, the children of 
Room II were slightly superior. 

The personal equation of the teachers necessarily influences 
such rankings ; consequently the children were compared also on 
the basis of their reactions on October first to the standardized 
tests, numbers 44, 46, 47, and 48, which are, perhaps, as good 
tests of general intellectual power as have been devised. It was 
found that when the scorings were divided into five ranks and 
each rank was weighted, the following comparison resulted. 









TABLE IV 


















Test 44 












Room I. 








Ro 


om 


II. 





X 


S = o 






2 


X 


5 


= 10 


3 


X 


4 = 12 






2 


X 


4 


= 8 


9 


X 


3 — 27 






8 


X 


3 


= 24 


9 


X 


2 = 18 






6 


X 


2 


= 12 


2 


X 


1 = 2 






6 


X 


1 


= 6 


23 




59 
2. 


57 




24 






60 
2.50 



Test 46 





Room 


1 1. 




Room 


II. 


4 


X 


5 


= 20 


5 


X 


5 


= 25 


5 


X 


4 


= 20 


8 


X 


4 


= 32 


8 


X 


3 


= 24 


4 


X 


3 


= 12 


6 


X 


2 


= 12 


5 


X 


2 


= IO 





X 


1 


= 


2 


X 


1 


= 2 


23 






76 


24 






8l 


Av. 






3-30 








3-38 



303] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 53 

Test 47 







Room I. 








Ro 


0)11 


II. 




3 


X 


5 


= 


15 




2 


X 


5 


= 10 




5 


X 


4 


= 


20 




11 


X 


4 


— 44 




11 


X 


3 


= 


33 




7 


X 


3 


= 21 




4 


X 


2 


= 


8 




3 


X 


2 


= 6 







X 


1 


= 







1 


X 


1 


= 1 




23 








76 




24 






82 


Av. 










3-30 


7>.yf ^5 








3-42 






Room I. 








Room 


II. 




5 


X 


5 


= 


25 




3 


X 


5 


= IS 




5 


X 


4 


= 


20 




6 


X 


4 


= 24 




2 


X 


3 


= 


6 




4 


X 


3 


= 12 




7 


X 


2 


= 


14 




5 


X 


2 


= 10 




4 


X 


1 


= 


4 




5 


X 


1 


= 5 




23 








69 




23 






66 


Av. 










3.00 










2.87 



These results seem to show that Room II as a whole is slightly 
more variable than Room I and also that it averages somewhat 
higher in ability. The latter conclusion is confirmed by the 
results of the remaining tests given before any training. Among 
the seventeen in which positive scores were made by both rooms, 
Room II was superior in 11, equal in 1, and inferior in 5 to 
Room I. The differences between the scores expressed as per 
cents of the lower are as follows: 

Room I superior by 2, 9, 18, 36, 44, — with an average of 22. 

Room II superior by 10, 17, 25, 31, 33, 33, 42, 56, 57, 62, 81,— 
with an average of 41. 

When the children are compared as to age it is seen that 
Room II shows a wider distribution, but the averages and 
medians, counted by half years, are identical. The distribution 
is shown in Figure I. Whatever variation exists probably is not 
significant, for there is a correlation (Spearman Footrule 
Method) between the age and intellectual ability, of the children 



54 



Teachers College Record 



[304 



of Room II, of only +.06, and between age and ranking in 
knowledge of grammar of only +.19. 

But inasmuch as chance distribution, the ranking of teachers, 
and the results of the tests used might be inaccurate, a double 
check was arranged. At the beginning of the school year 1912, 



Figure I 
Showing Age Distribution Correct to Revised Half Year. (Oct. 1, 1913.) 




/©.£" 



tf.$- 



iz~$- 



I3S- 



>v-r 



Room I. 
Room II 



Av. 1234, Med. 12.9 
Av. 12.5, Med. 12.8 



all of the children were given the first set of tests. Then for 
three months, three periods a week, the children of Room I were 
taught formal grammar by the experimenter, who for five years 
had given instruction in the subject in a state normal school; 
during these three months the children of Room II had work 
in composition and language. There were then given the second 
set of tests, after which the conditions were reversed : the children 
of Room II having formal grammar; those of Room I working 



305] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 55 

with language and composition. Then about the middle of April, 
1913, the first set of tests was again given to all the children. 
By this arrangement, original difference in intellectual abilities 
mattered little. Not only could the record of Room I with 
formal grammar for three months be compared with that of 
Room II without it, and vice versa; but also, so far as each test 
is comparable with its fellow in difficulty, the record of each 
room with formal grammar could be compared with the record 
made by the same room during the three months when it was 
taught language and composition. 



Other Conditions 

During the two teaching periods of three months each, as many 
conditions as could be controlled were alike. The rooms were 
practically the same in every respect; the course of study was 
identical for both rooms, some children in each taking 
French, others German, etc. ; the children of both rooms had in 
common teachers of formal grammar, history, arithmetic, 
geography, German or French, music, and manual arts; the 
grammar in each room was taught at some period between 10:30 
and 1 :oo, when school was dismissed for the day. 

It would be better, of course, had more time been devoted to 
the experiment, but it could hardly have been taken without 
working an injustice to the children. Besides, it was believed 
that if there were any marked transfer of the abilities acquired 
through the study of formal grammar, it should be manifest 
after three months of intensive work. 29 Especially should this 
be true if the subject be taught, as it was, as ' an elementary part 
of logic, the beginning of the analysis of the thinking process.' 30 
In each class the same material was used — the sentence and 
each of its essential elements; adjectives and adverbs; and 
phrases and clauses as modifiers. Emphasis was laid not at all 
on grammar in its relation to literature and composition, but 

23 The course of study provides that approximately half of the three 
periods a week throughout the year be given to grammar. 
80 J. S. Mill, quoted by Leonard, loc. cit. 



56 Teachers College Record [306 

on the subject as a strict science. The children were given 
crude material, from which, after likenesses and differences were 
discovered, definitions were built up. These definitions were 
compared with those in standard texts and all of them criticized ; 
and then the accepted definition was repeatedly applied, with 
systematic thoroughness, to examples. In fact, all of the 
activities of the mind which are asserted to be improved by the 
study of formal grammar were attempted as frequently as time 
would permit. 



Attempt to Secure a General Ideal 

From time to time during the formal grammar teaching 
attempts were made to establish a general ideal 31 of the methods 
pursued. Attention was called to the necessity of seeing like- 
nesses and differences, of thoroughly applying definitions, etc., 
in arithmetic, geography, and other matters as well as in 
grammar, and a small amount of practice was given in several 
other fields. Very little, however, seemed to be accomplished, 
though more effort was expended than can be reasonably 
expected from the class-room teacher in the ordinary routine of 
her work. 

To those who have only theoretical ideals of the kind and 
amount of grammar that should be taught in the upper grades 
the results of the three months' work would seem pitifully small. 
Despite the general interest of the children in the class-room 
work, they learned just enough grammar to be a disappointment 
and source of vexation to the teachers of the high school, which 
they will enter in the fall of 19 13. And yet their accomplishment 
was quite as great, judged by the results of Test 54, as that of 
children in typical public schools. Whatever be the truth about 
the amount of transfer, it is a question whether elementary 
school children can under ordinary conditions learn enough of 
formal grammar to justify its study. Owing chiefly to better 
teaching by the experimenter, especially in the increased amount 
of drill, the children of Room II showed in their grammar 
examination immediately after the training period better results 
than did those of Room I. These results are shown in Table V. 

31 Ruediger, Educ. Rev., XXXVI, 364 ff! 



307] 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



57 



TABLE V 

Showing Grades on the Examination at the End of the Period of 
Formal Grammar Teaching. 



Boys 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 



Room I. 
5o 

47-5 


25 

5 

48 

5 
Absent 

2.5 
Absent 

25 
10 

7-5 
27-5 
45 



Room II. 

25 
30 
45 
20 
10 

55 
20 

75 
5o 
30 
25 
55 
20 
20 
40 
18 



Girls 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

Average 



7-5 
10 
28 
37-5 

7-5 
48 
17-5 
17-5 
20 
65 

5 
20 

50.5 

5o 

42.5 

25.88 



90 
50 

60 
90 
65 
50 
75 
5 
60 

25 
70 

55 



44.76 



Administration of the Tests 

The tests were given personally by the experimenter, who 
stood in a doorway that connected the two rooms. Thus the 
children sat in their own seats, each with a practice sheet, by 



58 Teachers College Record [308 

which instructions were given when it was necessary. The 
children were highly interested throughout all the periods, the 
longest of which was forty-five minutes; the others, thirty or 
less. 

The tests were administered as follows : Individual test sheets 
were passed, and after the children had written their names on 
the backs the sheets were kept face down until instructions were 
given. Any necessary questions were answered, but the instruc- 
tions were so carefully prepared that seldom was there any 
question. At a signal each child held up his pencil to signify 
his readiness ; at " Go ! " he turned over his paper and worked 
until he either finished or heard " Stop ! " During the tests all 
objective conditions were the same except that the experimenter 
was at the back of one room and at the front of the other. 

The amount of time allowed to each exercise was determined 
partly by the preliminary tests given at Mt. Vernon, and then 
changes were made as the tests proceeded in the Illinois schools. 32 
The ideal in most cases was to allow enough time so that all 
who were capable or who worked steadily could finish within 
the time limit. In the association tests the ideal was to allow not 
quite enough time for anyone to get entirely through, undistri- 
buted perfect scores being almost as impossible to interpret as 
undistributed zeros. Careful records kept of the amount accom- 
plished in the association tests and of the number of pupils 
completing the others showed that the time allowance was fair 
and, in most cases, not far from the ideal. It was notable that 
hardly any of the approximately six hundred children tested 
used any of the time remaining after they had " finished." 
Instead of verifying their results, practically all of those who 
finished within the time allowance merely waited for the final 
signal. This was true, likewise, of many who failed to secure 
within two or three minutes a clue to such tests as 1-6. 

Results 
[In all of the Tables the score and gain made following the training 
period in formal grammar are in italics.] 

Group I. Ability to see likenesses and differences. 
Of these tests, numbers 2, 3, and 5 proved too difficult. In 

32 Reported in Part IV. 



309] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 59 

number 2, when it was first given, no child scored. In number 3 
only one child from Room I scored and only three from Room 
II; in number 5 only one child from Room I scored and none 
from Room II. Consequently these tests are discarded. Pairing 
numbers 1 and 4, we have Table VI. 







TABLE VI 










Test 4a* 


Test 1 Gain 


Test 1 


Test 4b 


Gain 


Room I. 
Room II. 


3.60 
2.50 


4-74 1 -H 
5-94 3-44 


4-74 

5-94 


8.15 
6.40 


3-41 
.46 



Room I in the preliminary test showed a superiority over 
Room II in seeing likenesses. After three months of formal 
grammar, Room I showed only about a third as much gain in 
this ability as Room II, without formal grammar, showed. 
Room II, on the other hand, after its three months of formal 
grammar, showed only about an eighth as much gain as Room I, 
after three months without formal grammar, showed. When 
each room is compared with itself, Room I gained with formal 
grammar only about a third of what it gained without; while 
Room II only about an eighth as much. Thus the comparison 
of room with room or of each room with itself affords practically 
the same results, the smaller score going after the work in formal 
grammar in each of the four cases. 

When number 2 was given the second time (in April, 1913) 
a normal number scored from each room. Comparing these 
scores with those made by the four children in number 3 (in 
January, 1913), we have a similar, though less trustworthy, 
result, as shown in Table VII. 



Gain 
2.05 

1-45 

The gain of Room II with formal grammar is only three-fourths 
that of Room I without it. 





TABLE VII 




Test 3 Test 2a 


Room I. 


.36 2.41 


Room II. 


.86 2.31 



* The letter a is added after the number of the test when it was given 
in October; b is added when the same test was given a second time in 
April. 



60 Teachers College Record [310 

In numbers 7-8 the highest number of common elements 
recorded by any child was only about one-third the number 
recorded by all the children. Here was a field, then, in which 
ingenuity could — and did — find ample latitude. See Table VIII. 







TABLE VIII 










Test 8a 


Test 7 Gain 


Test 7 


Test 8b 


Gain 


Room I. 
Room II. 


1. 41 
2.28 


3.48 2.07 
3-33 1.05 


3.48 
3-33 


3.24 
5-30 


—.24 
1.97 



Room I with formal grammar brought' its score up from 
62 per cent of that of Room II to a slight superiority ; Room II 
then, with formal grammar, brought its score up from practical 
equality to 1.64 times that of Room I. Compared with them- 
selves, Room I gained 2.07 during the three months with formal 
grammar and lost .24 during the three months without it, while 
Room II gained 1.05 during the period without formal grammar 
and 1.97 during the period with it. Here the superiority goes 
after formal grammar in each of the four comparisons. 

Tests number 9-10 proved so difficult that no great amount of 
confidence can be put in the results. However, in this as in 
every other case conditions were equal for both rooms. 
Table IX shows that with formal grammar each room gained 
more than the other room or itself without it. 







TABLE IX 










Test 10a 


Test q Gain 


Test 9 


Test 10b 


Gain 


Room I. 


1. 00 


1.50 .50 


1.50 


1.59 


.09 


Room II. 


1. 00 


1.05 .05 


1.05 


1.44 


■39 



The results as shown in these tables are somewhat favorable 
to the room having had formal grammar, its score being superior 
to the other, when the untrustworthy Tables VII and IX 
are included, in eight out of thirteen comparisons. Excluding 
these tables, we find that the room with formal grammar is 
superior in six out of ten comparisons. 

Group II. Ability to judge a definition. 

The low scores in 12a are due partly to the fact that the 
children worked slowly in this first test and partly to their 



31 1] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 61 

obsession for the poor definitions a i and a 4, In April, when 
number 12 was given the second time, the children were advised 
to distribute their time equally among the three parts and signals 
were given at the end of 37, 71, and 105 seconds. Judged by 
the scores as compared with those of number 11, this device 
seemed to accomplish little; as a matter of fact several of the 
children — there may have been more — were observed working 
with pride ahead of the signal. The device would probably 
have improved the first scores, however, had it been used. 







TABLE X 










Test 12a 


Test 11 Gain 


Test 11 


Test 12a 


Gain 


Room I. 


-.76 


13.80 14.56 


13.80 


14-33 


•55 


Room II. 


2.14 


18.38 14.24 


18.38 


14.90 


-3.48 



In numbers 13-14 the children were asked not only to judge 
four definitions but also to correct those that were untrue. As 
it was impossible when a definition was passed over to tell 
whether the child considered it correct or too difficult to attempt, 
the fourth definition in number 13 and the second in number 14 
were scored only when they were in some manner approved. 







TABLE XI 










Test 14a 


Test 13 Gain 


Test 13 


Test 14b 


Gain 


Room I. 


.96 


2.43 1.47 


2.43 


3-13 


.70 


Room II. 


1.28 


2.52 1.24 


2.52 


3-23 


• 7i 



From Table X we see that Room I with formal grammar 
gained about two per cent more than did Room II without it; 
and that when the conditions were reversed Room II actually 
lost 3.48 while Room I was gaining .55. Because of the great 
difference between the gains in the first practice period and in 
the second, a comparison of each roorfi with itself is unprofitable. 
As it stands, however, such a comparison shows that Room I 
with formal grammar gained 14.01 more than it did without it, 
while Room II with formal grammar gained 17.72 less than it 
did with it. 

Table XI shows the gain of Room I with formal grammar 
approximately nineteen per cent more than that of Room II 



62 Teachers College Record [312 

without it; and with the conditions reversed, gains that are 
practically identical. As prime numbers seem to have been 
learned during the year, a comparison of each room with itself 
reveals nothing of value. The results of the tests in this group 
are neutral. There is no evidence of a positive transfer after 
formal grammar. 

Group III. Ability to thoroughly apply a definition. 

The tests of this group especially demanded promptness as 
well as accuracy; in fact, it is probable that too little time was 
allowed for tests number 15 and 16, extreme promptness and 
accuracy as a result being better measured by them than accuracy 
alone. Judged by the number finishing the work before the 
signal, time enough was given to each of the other tests to 
secure accurate results. 







TABLE XII 










Test 16a 


Test 15 Gain 


Test 15 


Test 16b 


Gain 


Room I. 


6.88 


9-57 2.69 


9-57 


7.46 


— 2. 11 


Room II. 


5. 84 


8.89 3.05 


8.89 


10.16 


1.27 



As shown in Table XII Room I with formal grammar gained 
.36 less than Room II without it; without formal grammar it 
gained 3.38 less than Room II with it. When each is compared 
with itself Room I gained 4.80 less without formal grammar 
than with it; Room II, 1.78 less with it than without it. Thus 
from these figures no claim can fairly be made for the disciplinary 
value of the subject. 

TABLE XIII 





Test 18a 


Test 17 


Gain 


Test 17 


Test 18b 


Gain 


Room I. 


5-68 


5-21 


—■47 


5.21 


7.22 


2.01 


Room II. 


5-20 


6.32 


1. 12 


6.32 


7.00 


.68 



In Table XIII the gain for the room with formal grammar 
is less in each case, by 1.57 and 1.33. Without formal grammar 
Room I gained 2.48 more than with it; Room 11, .44 more. The 
evidence here is distinctly against any positive transfer. 







TABLE XIV 










Test 20a 


Test 19 Gain 


Test 19 


Test 20b 


Gain 


Room I. 


1.08 


■59 -49 


• S9 


4.26 


3-67 


Room II. 


1.96 


—.93 —2.89 


— •93 


1.80 


2-73 



313] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 63 

In Table XIV Room I with formal grammar gains .49 while 
Room II without it loses 2.89 ; when the conditions are reversed 
Room I gains 3.67; Room II, 2.73. When each is compared 
with itself we see that Room I gains 3.18 more without formal 
grammar than with it, while Room II gains 5.62 less. Here the 
evidence is such as would result by chance: one-half favors 
transfer, the other half denies it. 







TABLE XV 










Test 22a 


Test 21 Gain 


Test 21 


Test 22b 


Gain 


Room I. 
Room II. 


1.72 
2.81 


3.14 i-42 
3-17 .36 


3.14 
3.17 


5-84 
6.41 


2.70 

3-H 



Table XV shows that with formal grammar Room I gained 
202 per cent more than Room II without it, and that Room II 
with formal grammar gained 20 per cent more than Room I 
without it. Compared with itself Room I gained 90 per cent 
more without formal grammar than with it, while Room II 
gained 547 per cent more with formal grammar than without 
it. Here the children did distinctly better after formal 
grammar. 

On account of the subject-matter, Tests 23 and 24 were not 
given at the first testing period. The results at the second and 
third periods are shown in Table XVI. 

TABLE XVI 

Gain Test 24a Test 24b Gain 

1.28 — 2.17 — 1.24 .93 

.23 — 2.76 — .91 1.85 

After three months of formal grammar Room I made scores 
of — .47 and — 2.17; then after a like period without this 
training it raised both scores, by 1.28 and .93 respectively. 
Without formal grammar Room II made scores of .59 and 
— 2.76; with it, the room raised both scores, by .23 and 1.85 
respectively. The record after formal grammar is not creditable 
in any case, the best record for number 23 being .82 out of a 
possible 4.00 and for number 24 — .91 out of a possible 4.00. 
The evidence regarding transfer is negative; the same results 
might have been obtained by chance. 





Test 23a 


Test 23 


Room I. 


—•47 


.81 


Room II. 


• 59 


.82 



64 



Teachers College Record 



[3i4 



For fear that the two minutes given for test number 23 was 
too short a time for the children to thoroughly apply the 
definition, Room II, having just completed the work in formal 
grammar, was given another trial of the test. After reviewing 
the principles of fully analyzing a complex definition into its 
details and of making specific questions that would prove the 
application of each detail, the children used for practice work 
test number 21, which they had had on the preceding day. When 
they together had applied the definition of " wealth " and had 
discussed their errors of omission and of commission, they were 
given (for the third time) test number 23. At this trial the 
children were allowed all the time they wanted : many of them 
were through framing and applying their questions in three 
minutes ; the last one finished in twelve minutes. The room 
score was 1.18 out of a possible 4. The curve in Figure II shows 
the distribution of the individual scores. 



sr 

2. 
/ 



riuuKji 


11 










//w*t»\ lr er 




- 1 


of h*.pLL$ 













s- V 



3 a* — / C 



+1 -L. 3 



Judging by these results no one can maintain that such training 
in grammar as these children had in the least improves their 
ability to thoroughly apply such definitions as these. Moreover, 
it would further appear that the demands of tests 23 and 24, 
which are frequent in formal grammar classes, can not be 
satisfactorily met by such children as these even under the most 
favorable conditions. 



Group IV. Ability to make a rule .or definition. 

The task set by tests number 25-26 proved entirely beyond 
children of this age and maturity. The few rules attempted 



315] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 65 

were so incomplete and full of errors that no indicative record 
could be made. A record was begun of how the children set 
to work — whether they saw the likeness and difference between 
the two groups of words — but so many had set down nothing at 
all that this was abandoned. The only conclusion that can be 
drawn from this test is that children such as were tested are 
not brought up by this kind and amount of training in formal 
grammar to an ability to make the rules called for. 

Group V. Ability to judge reasons. 

The children considered the tests in this group very easy, most 
of them finishing well within the time allowed. The fact, 
however, that some individuals will see for an occasional reason 
a substantial justification that does not occur to others makes 
the conclusions less convincing than it was hoped they might 
be. For example, the nine adults who prepared scores for these 
tests, gave to the seventh reason of test number 27 (" New 
York has elevated railroads.") the following credits: — 1, — 1, 
o, — 3, — 2, — 1, — 3, 2, 1, any one of which might in a way 
be justified. It may be said in defense of the tests, however, 
that children are less likely to introduce sophistication into the 
matter than are adults. This is proved by the approximation in 
the April tests, numbers 28 and 30, to the perfect scores 13 
and 13. 

TABLE XVII 





Test 28a 


Test 27 


Gain 


Test 27 


Test 28b 


Gain 


Room I. 


5-77 


8.17 


2.40 


8.17 


11-35 


3.18 


Room II. 


7.24 


8-33 


1.09 


8.33 


11.40 


3-07 



In Table XVII Room I with formal grammar is seen to have 
made more than twice as much gain as Room II without it, while 
Room II with its term of formal grammar makes a trifle less 
gain than Room I without it. Compared with itself, Room I 
makes a better gain without formal grammar ; Room II, a much 
better gain with it. 

TABLE XVIII 
Test 30a Test 29 Gain Test 29 Test 30b Gain 
Room I. 4.69 7.63 2.94 7.63 9.81 2.18 

Room II. 6.67 8.14 1.47 8.14 10.64 2.40 



66 Teachers College Record [316 

In Table XVIII each room makes a better record with formal 
grammar than the other room makes without it, and likewise 
a better record than itself makes without it. So far as the evi- 
dence in these two tables is convincing, the formal grammar 
training manifests some transfer in six out of eight comparisons. 

Group VI. Ability to use data. 

The inability of children to select from a mass of data all 
that they need and no more is strikingly shown in the small 
scores of Table XIX. The maximum possible in each case is 1. 







TABLE XIX 










Test 32a 


Test 31 Gain 


Test 31 


Test 32b 


Gain 


Room I. 


.06 


■ 35 -29 


• 35 


.12 


— .23 


Room II. 


.08 


.48 .40 


.48 


• 19 


— .29 



So far as the small scores permit of a conclusion, it would 
seem that the room with formal grammar made a worse score, 
by .11 and .06, than the room without it. Compared with itself, 
Room I did better by .52 with formal grammar; Room II did 
better by .69 without it. Thus the evidence is against a posi- 
tive transfer. 

Group VII. Ability to reason in arithmetic. 

As the children were not asked to give the steps by which 
they solved these problems, the scores measure reasoning ability 
and skill in computation combined. 

TABLE XX 

Test 34a Test 33 Gain Test 33 Test 34b Gain 

Room I. .300 .428 .128 .428 .638 .210 

Room II. .392 .550 .158 .550 .692 .142 

By Table XX it is seen that with formal grammar Room I 
gains .128 while Room II without it gains .158; conditions being 
reversed, Room I gains .210, Room II, .142. It is probable, 
however, that the gain of Room II. during the second period is 
more nearly equal to that of Room I than it seems, as it is from 
a higher base. Being .122 points above Room I in January, 



317] Formal English Grammar as a Disciplnie 67 

Room II in April has gained enough skill to be superior by .054 
points. When compared with itself, each room is seen to have 
gained less after formal grammar: .128 vs. .210 for Room I; 
.158 vs. .142 for Room II. 







TABLE XXI 










Test 36a 


Test 35 Gain 


Test 35 


Test 36b 


Gain 


Room I. 


.231 


.603 .372 


.603 


.684 


.081 


Room II. 


.360 


•707 -347 


.707 


■ 573 


— .134 



By Table XXI the evidence is exactly balanced. With formal 
grammar Room I gains .025 more than Room II without it; 
while with conditions changed Room II gains .215 less than 
Room I. When compared with itself, Room I is seen to have 
gained .291 more with than without formal grammar and Room 
II to have gained .481 less. 

In these tables six comparisons favor the room having 
language and composition; only two favor the room having 
formal grammar. 

Group VIII. Ability to reason syllogistically. 

In this group of tests practically all the children finished well 
within the time allowed and, despite many fragmentary answers, 
apparently felt well satisfied with their attempts. It was notable 
that very few of the children ever went back and reviewed their 
work. It was unfortunate that the children were not asked 
specifically to indicate which syllogisms were sound, for a blank 
after a sound syllogism may have resulted from a feeling of 
inability rather than from a recognition of soundness. 







tabl: 


E XXII 










Test 38a 


Test 37 


Gain 


Test 37 


Test 38b 


Gain 


Room I. 


1.92 


2.52 


.60 


2.52 


3-oo 


.48 


Room II. 


2. 11 


2.^2, 


.61 


2.72 


2.75 


■ 03 



After the first practice period the room with formal grammar 
showed practically the same gain as the other (See Table 
XXII) ; after the second period, a gain considerably less. Com- 
pared with itself, Room I gained a little more with formal 
grammar than without; Room II, considerably less. 



68 Teachers College Record [318 







TABLE XXIII 










Test 40a 


Test 39 Gain 


Test 39 


Test 40b 


Gain 


Room I. 


2.22 


2.50 .28 


2.50 


2.56 


.06 


Room II. 


2.66 


2.48 — .18 


2.48 


3.08 


.60 



Here, as shown in Table XXIII, in each case the better score 
is made by the room having had formal grammar, whether the 
comparison is made of one room with the other or of one 
room with itself. Judged by the first pair of tests in this group, 
the evidence is against any transfer; judged by the second pair 
of tests, the evidence is strongly for it. 

Group IX. Ability to detect catches. 







TABLE XXIV 










Test 42a 


Test 41 Gain 


Test 41 


Test 42b 


Gain 


Room I. 


3-13 


3-28 .15 


3-28 


4-05 


■ 77 


Room II. 


3 -05 


3.17 .12 


3-17 


3.85 


.68 



In Table XXIV there is almost no difference between the 
scores of the room with formal grammar and those of the room 
without it. When each room is compared with itself, one 
comparison favors formal grammar; the other does not. Thus 
there is no evidence of transfer. 

Group X. Ability to make prompt and accurate associations 
and to follow directions. 
The scores in the first two of the following tables will in 
some degree indicate what improvement may result from normal 
growth, practice due to taking tests, and the repetition of certain 
tests after an interval of six months. A comparison of these 
scores, which are presumably not influenced to an appreciable 
extent by any individual subject in the curriculum, with those 
resulting from tests 1-42, will show in these latter no positive 
change that can be due to the presence of formal grammar. 

TABLE XXV 

Test 44a Test 43 Gain (Per cent) -Test 43 Test 44b Gain (Percent) 
Room I. 13.04 15.22 2.18 (17%) 15.22 17.00 1.78 (12%) 
Room II. 13.29 16.15 2.86 (22%) 16.15 16.85 -70 ( 4%) 



319] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 69 

It will be noted that the initial scores differ by only .25 points, 
the second by .93, and the final by .15 ; while the per cents of gain 
range between 4 and 22. 

TABLE XXVI 
Test 46a Test 45 Gain {Per cent) Test 45 Test 46b Gain (Per cent) 
Room I. 8.00 8.39 .39 (5%) 8.39 10.79 2.40 (29%) 
Room II. 7.81 7-39 —-42 (1%) 7-39 10.98 3.59 (49%) 

Here the initial scores differ by .50 points, the second by 
1. 00, and the final by .19; while the per cents of gain range 
between — 1 and 49. 

Tests number 47-49, which were a part of the original series, 
will serve in some degree to measure the general abilities of the 
children in the two rooms. Also, as Test 47 was given first 
in the original series and followed immediately by Test 48, the 
difference between their scores indicates a gain due almost 
entirely to practice in taking tests. 







TABLE XXVII 


Gain of 






Test 47 


Test 48 


48 over 47 


Test 49 


Room I. 


10.87 


12.65 


16% 


12.04 


Room II. 


9.92 


12.87 


30% 


12.41 



In this test there is a maximum difference between the two 
rooms of .95 ; when the three scores of each room are added the 
totals differ by only .36, showing that, so far as these tests are 
adequate measures, the rooms differ little in their ability to 
understand and to follow directions. 

Group XL Ability to correct language errors and to point off 
sentences. 
The tests in this group were not given in October; conse- 
quently the double check previously used does not appear as in 
the other tests of the series. Inasmuch as numbers 50-53 were 
arranged without any reference to the Horace Mann School or 
any other curriculum, it was only by chance that the children 
studied the particular details included therein during the non- 
grammar training; it is certain that they had no formal instruc- 



70 Teachers College Record [320 

tion or drill in them during the three months in which formal 
grammar was taught. Consequently, any improvement in the 
score after the period in which the children had no formal 
language training must be due to increased familiarity with the 
tests (they were repeated at the end of three months), or to 
incidental instruction elsewhere. 





TABLE XXVIII 






Test 50a Test 50b 


Gain 


Room I. 


.228 .2.2,7 


— .001 


Room II. 


.177 -240 


.063 



Table XXVIII shows Room I with a positive initial 
advantage, due perhaps to the chance selection of details for 
the test, perhaps to incidental instruction, or perhaps to better 
training during the previous school life. It certainly could not 
have been due to any training received through formal grammar, 
for the application of grammar to language was intentionally 
omitted throughout the three-month period. As compared with 
a possible score of 1, the records at best are poor. The situation 
is complicated by the fact that after three months with formal 
grammar Room II made a substantial gain, while Room I with 
language and composition just holds its own. 

TABLE XXIX 

Test 51a Test 51b Gain 

Room I. — .70 — .04 .66 

Room II. —1.86 — .28 1.58 

A similar situation is presented by Table XXIX. After 
training in formal grammar Room I makes a better initial score ; 
but at the end of the second period, during which it had language 
and composition, it makes a gain of .92 less than Room II which 
has been instructed not in language or composition but in formal 
grammar. 

TABLE XXX 





Test 52a 


- Test 52b 


Gain 


Room I. 


2.50 


4.88 


2.38 


Room II. 


2.61 


4-77 


2.16 



321] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 71 

The results as represented in Table XXX are such as one 
might expect. Room II without formal grammar makes a 
slightly higher initial score; then Room I without formal gram- 
mar makes a gain 10 per cent larger than Room II with it. A 
priori this test would hardly seem as likely to get correct results 
as the two preceding ones : they have a larger number of errors 
presented in isolated sentences of the text-book type, while this 
test has eight errors, five of which are too difficult to be detected 
in context by half of the pupils. This is the type of test, how- 
ever, that most truly ascertains ability to correct language errors 
in actual life situations. 





TABLE XXXI 








Test 53 la Test 53 lb 


Gain 


Test 53 II 


Room I. 


14-43 i7-o8 


2.65 


.96 


Room II. 


13-55 16.77 


3-22 


.78 



Table XXXI again presents unexpected results. After formal 
grammar Room I presents a higher score than Room II with 
language and grammar; and Room II with formal grammar 
makes a gain of 3.22, to 2.65 made by Room I with language 
and composition. In April the second part of the test was 
presented, Room I with language and composition making a 
score of .96 (out of a possible 4.00), while Room II with formal 
grammar made a score of .78. 

Group XII. 

It was the opinion of the teacher that Room II learned more of 
formal grammar than Room I, an opinion confirmed by the test. 
See Table XXXII. 33 Though the same material was presented 
to both rooms, it was given more drill in Room II and hence was 
remembered better for the examination. It is a question, how- 
ever, whether Room II had as much better an understanding 
of the principles taught as the score would indicate. 



TABLE XXXII 




Test 54 


Room I. 


29.09 


Room II. 


44.76 



For a distribution of the individual scores see Table V, page 57. 



PART IV 
THE TESTS IN OTHER SCHOOLS 

In order that some data might be obtained regarding the effect 
of grammar, formal and informal, as it is ordinarily taught, the 
tests previously described were given to pupils in five public 
schools in Illinois. These towns were selected so as to afford 
as fair contrasts as possible. According to general tradition and 
statements by the respective superintendents, schools A and C 
emphasize formal grammar in Grade VII ; schools B and D do 
not. There is no information in possession of the experimenter 
as to exactly what grammar is taught in each school; it is 
probable that the difference between the kinds is largely a matter 
of emphasis. These schools were selected because of the facts 
that they are only a few miles apart, that they are good public 
schools, and that according to general understanding they repre- 
sent schools that emphasize different types of grammar. No 
attempt was made to compare with any scientific exactness pupils, 
teachers, courses of study, or any other elements involved. The 
situation was taken as it was found. 

In a departmental school of the fifth city the conditions are 
somewhat more distinct. Here the tests were given to Grade 
VII B, which has language and composition, and to Grade 
VII A, which with the guidance of an excellent text has formal 
grammar for a half year. These rooms will be referred to in 
this report as school E and school F respectively. 

That there might be some data concerning the improvement 
due merely to general development and practice effect, the tests 
were given also to groups of children from Grade VI in schools 
A and B and to children from Grade VI A in schools C and D, 
promotions being made annually in the first two schools, semi- 
annually in the second. 

The tests were given also to the sixth and seventh grades of 
the practice schools in two state normal schools, one in Illinois, 

72 [322 



323] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 73 

the other in Indiana. 1 Both teach formal grammar with a text 
in the seventh grade. They will be referred to in this experiment 
as schools G and H. 

With the exception to be noted below the first tests were given 
in September, 1913, personally by the experimenter; the second 
by Mr. H. O. Rugg and Mr. E. E. Lewis, both trained in 
scientific method, following explicit and detailed written instruc- 
tions. Mr. Rugg gave the tests to schools A, B, E, and F 
between January 28 and February 8, 1913 ; Mr. Lewis gave the 
tests to schools C, D, and G in March. Dr. C. H. Bean gave all 
the tests to school H, the first ones in October, the second in 
April. In schools C, D, E, F, and G the odd numbered tests 
were given first; in schools A, B, and H, the even numbered 
ones. Care was taken only to have the time allowed for each 
test the same for the schools contrasted. For all these reasons 
it can not be assumed that any school can be compared with 
any other except the one paired with it. 

Of course no conclusions scientifically accurate were hoped 
for. But it was thought wise to give the tests to* such schools 
as were ordinarily cited in discussions of formal grammar in 
order that there might be ascertained just what differences 
exist. With so many pupils there is sure to be a cancelation 
of many chance elements, and if the majority of the results 
supported those found at the Horace Mann School, these latter 
would be strengthened just so much. In these six schools there 
were examined in both series of tests 295 children distributed as 
follows : 

1 In addition, it was planned to conduct the experiment with the more 
mature students of normal schools, but a series of disappointments made 
it impossible to secure enough data to warrant any report. 



74 Teachers College Record [324 



Schools 


Grades 


Numbers 


A 


VII 

VI 2 


22 


B 


VII 


20 




VI 


36 


C 


VIIB 


36 




VIA 


12 


D 


VIIB 


19 




VIA 


22 


E 


VIIA 


22 


F 


VIIB 


22 


G 


VII 


30 




VI 


17 


H 


VII 


18 




VI 


19 



29s 

More than 400 children took the first series of tests, but because 
of absences, transfers, etc., about one-third were not tested a 
second time. For one reason and another a few tests were not 
given in Grade VI of school C and in both grades of school H. 

Results 

(Throughout the following explanations the reader- must remember that 
the upper grade in schools A, C, E, G, and H were taught formal gram- 
mar and that the other grades were not. In the tables all scores and 
gains after formal grammar are in italics.) 

Group I. Ability to see likenesses and differences. 

As measured by tests 1 and 4 the schools trained in formal 
grammar with one exception make less improvement in seeing 
likenesses and differences than do the corresponding schools 
with language and composition. (See Table XXXIII) School 
A loses what ability it showed before training, while school B 
gained more than 200 per cent; school C gained less than half 
as much as school D ; and G and H are poorer in five of the 
six possible comparisons with the corresponding grades having 
no formal grammar. On the contrary, F with an abnormal initial 
score shows an actual loss, while E gained 4.72. In the three 



2 Owing to a readjustment during the year all the children in this room 
were transferred to another building and so could not be tested in January. 



325] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 75 

cases in which Grade VI of the school giving formal grammar 
was tested, it twice showed a better record than its upper grade. 
These results corroborate those found in the Horace Mann 
School. 

TABLE XXXIII 



School 


Test 1 


Test 4 


Gain 


Test 4 


Test 1 


Gam 


A 


VII 








2.73 





—2.73+ 


B 


VII 








2.14 


6.74 


4.60 




VI 








4.06 


3-34 


—.72 


C 


VIIB 


i-S4 


4.07 


2-53 










VIA 





1.67 


1.67+ 








D 


VIIB 





5-26 


5.26+ 










VIA 





2.86 


2.86+ 








E 


VILA. 


1.90 


6.62 


4.72 








F 


VIIB 


6.36 


S-90 


—.46 








G 


VII 


6.20 


3-48 


— 2.72 










VI 


1. 41 


2-59 


1. 17 








H 


VII 








• 95 


3-76 


2.81 




VI 








3-65 


7.06 


3-4i 








TABLE XXXIV 








School 


Test 7 


Test 8 


Gain 


Test 8 


Test 7 


Gain 


A 


VII 








1.82 


1.98 


.16 


B 


VII 








2.56 


2.98 


.42 




VI 








.94 


2.10 


1. 16 


C 


VIIB 
VIA 


2. go 


3-io 


.20 








D 


VIIB 


2.74 


3-o6 


• 32 










VIA 


2.95 


3-14 


.19 








E 


VILA. 


1.98 


2.32 


• 34 








F 


VIIB 


2.25 


• 95 


—1.30 








G 


VII 


2.30 


1. 92 


-.38 










VI 


1.38 


1.50 


.12 








H 


VII 








2.00 


2.07 


.07 




VI 








2.88 


2.32 


-.56 



Tests 7 and 8 show results (See Table XXXIV) which, 
although slightly opposing formal grammar, might have been 
obtained by chance. Schools A, B, C, and D show slight gains, 
those of B and D being larger; E shows a small gain while F is 
losing, but the situation in G is just the reverse ; H shows a 
trifling gain in Grade VII, but a loss in Grade VI. Comparing 
the sixth grades alone (VII B of school F), we find gains of 1.16, 



7 6 



Teachers College Record 



[326 



.19, and .12, and losses of 1.30 and .56. These results, wholly 
unaffected by formal grammar, show how insignificant the influ- 
ence of the subject was on the grades in which it was taught. 
These grades show gains of .16, .20, .34, — .38, and .07; the two 
seventh grades without formal grammar show gains of .42 and 
.32. These results differ from those of the Horace Mann School. 
There the tests showed a decided advantage for the rooms 
having formal grammar. 

The results of Tests 9-10, as presented in Table XXXV, 
favor formal grammar. School A gains 1.57 while B is gaining 
only .05 ; C loses .28 while D is losing .78; and E loses .19 while 
F is losing .43. G gains .30, but H at the same time loses at 
least .74. These tests show results almost as favorable to formal 
grammar as they did in the Horace Mann School. 









TABLE XXXV 








School 


Test 9 


Test 10 


Gain 


Test 10 


Testg 


Gain 


A VII 








.67 


2.24 


i-57 


B VII 








.65 


.70 


• 05 


VI 








.22 


.20 


— .02 


C VIIB 


.98 


■ 70 


—.28 








VIA 


















D VIIB 


1 


47 


.68 


— 


79 


- 






VIA 




30 


.38 




08 








E VIIA 




35 


.16 


— 


19 








F VIIB 


1 


26 


.83 


— 


43 








G VII 




70 


1. 00 




30 








VI 




42 


.76 




34 








H VII 








•74 





-■74+ 


VI 












• 53 


.84 


•3i 



The tests of this group show, then, one comparison unfavorable 
to formal grammar, one apparently the result of chance, and one 
somewhat favorable. Thus they do not confirm the advantage 
that formal grammar seemed to have in improving the ability of 
the children at the Horace Mann School to see likenesses and 
differences — an advantage more apparent than real, it may be 
added, for when the amounts of gain in the major experiment are 
compared with those in tests 43-48, which hardly can be affected 
by school training, they utterly fail to be convincing. 



3 2 7] 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



77 



Group II. Ability to judge a definition. 

As shown in Table XXXVI school A makes a decisive gain 
over that of B, though still failing by nearly 30 per cent to reach 
B's score; C while maintaining a superior score fails to gain 
as much as D; and E gains 1.01 while F is actually losing 
nearly three times as much. G gains nearly 5 per cent. 



TABLE XXXVI 



School 



A 

B 



D 

E 
F 
G 

H 



VII 
VII 

VI 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIA 
VIIB 
VII 

VI 
VII 

VI 



Test 11 Test 12 



1. 11 

1-33 
—1.22 
—2.48 

8.70 

7.91 
10.67 

9.00 



6.16 
1-25 
5.85 
3-95 
9.71 
5-0O 
11. 15 
1.88 



Gain Test 12 

2.44 

14.19 

9.00 

5-05 

— .08 

7.07 

6.43 

1. 01 

— 2.91 

.48 

— 7.12 



Test 11 
10.95 
14. 11 
10. 6o 



Gain 

8.51 

—.08 

1.69 



TABLE XXXVII 



School 


Test 13 


Test 14 


Gain 


Test 14 


Test 13 


Gain 


A 


VII 








.91 


1.64 


■ 73 


B 


VII 








2.30 


2-53 


•23 




VI 








1.56 


1.72 


.16 


C 


VIIB 
VIA 


1.83 


i-33 


—■50 








D 


VIIB 


1.47 


i-47 













VIA 


1.62 


.67 


—•95 








E 


VIIA 


1.30 


1.76 


.46 








F 


VIIB 


1.27 


2.00 


• 73 








G 


VII 


1.67 


1.91 


.24 










VI 


1-53 


2-35 


.82 








H 


VII 








.63 


1. 88 


1. 25 




VI 








3-00 


2.35 


-.65 



Table XXXVII shows that A gained decisively over B, 
though again failing to equal even the latter's initial score, and 
that C and E fail to make as good scores as D and F. The 
seventh grade of G gains only 30 per cent as much as the sixth, 



78 



Teachers College Record 



[328 



while in school H the sixth grade loses 50 per cent as much 
as the seventh grade gains. Like the results in the Horace 
Mann School these are neutral; that is, they show no advantage 
for formal grammar. This means, of course, that the claims for 
formal grammar are not substantiated. 

Group III. Ability to thoroughly apply a definition. 

The results of tests 15 and 16, as presented in Table 
XXXVIII, are decisively in favor of formal grammar. School 
A gains 6.86 while B is 1 losing 2.04; C gains 1.78 while D is 
gaining 2.53 from a much smaller initial score ; and E has a loss 
of only 2.95 to F's 8.02. The gains by G and H of 2.63 and 
11.33 respectively are also decisive. But against all this, atten- 
tion must be directed to the fact that, as was remarked on 
page 62, these tests probably measure extreme promptness and 
accuracy better than accuracy alone, and to the further fact 
that Grade VI of school H without formal grammar made the 
second highest gain of all. This latter fact causes a strong 
assumption that other causes are far more potent here than any 
school subject. This assumption is thoroughly concordant with 
the results of these tests in the Horace Mann School. 

TABLE XXXVIII 



School 


Test 


15 


Test 16 


Gain 


Test 16 


Test 15 


Gain 


A 


VII 








o(exact)<5.5<5 


6.86 


B 


VII 








6.88 


4.84 


— 2.04 




VI 








3-42 


4-17 


• 75 


C 


VIIB 


6.22 


7.70 


1.78 










VIA 


7 


33 


.80 


—6.53 








D 


VIIB 


2 


11 


4.64 


2.53 










VIA 


2 


25 


3-34 


1.09 








E 


VIIA 


4 


95 


2.00 


—2-95 








F 


VIIB 


7 


64 


-.38 


—8.02 








G 


VII 


3 


47 


6.10 


2.63 










VI 


4 


59 


4-5o 


— .09 








H 


VII 








-7.58 


3-75 


n-33 




VI 










1. 18 


11.65 


10.47 



Tests 17 and 18, dealing with the same kind of material 
as the preceding pair of tests, resulted in an advantage for 
schools B and F (See Table IXL), which made scores of — .42 
and 1.90 against those of — 1.50 and 1.46 by A and E respec- 



329] 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



79 



tively. Schools C and D are essentially tied, with scores of 
— .40 and — .37. School G lost 1.83; school H gained .16. It 
is notable that the sixth grade in every case but one had a 
considerably lower initial score but gained enough in two cases 
almost to equal and in the other two to surpass the score of its 
corresponding upper grade. All this makes it appear that 
improvement was not due to formal grammar. This conclusion 
is in harmony with the results in the Horace Mann School. 









TABLE IXL 








School 


Test 17 


Test 18 


Gain 


Test 18 


Test 17 


Gain 


A 


VII 








7.41 


5-9i 


—1.50 


B 


VII 








7.21 


6.79 


—.42 




VI 








5.00 


6.38 


1.38 


C 


VIIB 


6.06 


5-66 


—.40 










VIA 


5-17 


6.40 


1.23 








D 


VIIB 


6.58 


6.21 


—■37 










VIA 


3-io 


5-53 


2-43 








E 


VIIA 


3-30 


4.76 


1.46 








F 


VIIB 


3.91 


5.8i 


1.90 








G 


VII 


6.83 


5-00 


-1.83 










VI 


4.17 


5-77 


1.60 








H 


VII 








3.84 


4.00 


.16 




VI 








5.06 


4.94 


— .12 








TABLE XL 








Schoool 


Test 19 


Test 20 


Gain 


Test 20 


Test 19 


Gain 


A 


VII 








.32 


— 1. 00 


—.68 


B 


VII 








• 75 


—.72 


—1.47 




VI 








— 1.72 


— .11 


1.61 


C 


VIIB 


—.03 


— .22 


—.19 










VIA 


.25 


— 2.20 


—2.45 








D 


VIIB 


—•53 


.05 


.58 










VIA 


—1. 14 


.38 


1.52 








E 


VIIA 


—.80 


o( exact) .80 








F 


VIIB 


—1. 14 


—•33 


.81 








G 


VII 


—1.03 


.17 


1.20 










VI 


—•94 


o( exact) .94 








H 


VII 








-.58 


—1. 18 


—.60 




VI 








1.47 


1.76 


.29 



Table XL and Table XLI show the results of four very 
similar tests. In the former it is shown that A loses .68 while 



8o 



Teachers College Record 



[33o 



B is losing 1.47; that C loses .19 while D is gaining .58; and 
that E and F gain practically the same, .80 and .81. School 
G gains 1.20 while school H, equally emphasizing formal 
grammar, loses .60. These results could hardly be more equally 
divided had they been derived by chance ; moreover, they exactly 
harmonize with the results in the Horace Mann School, where 
half favored one side, and half the other. 









TABLE XLI 








School 


Test 21 


Test 22 


Gain 


Test 22 


Test 21 


Gain 


A VII 








-.64 


2.85 


3-49 


B VII 








—•05 


7- 5o 


7-55 


VI 








.11 


3-99 


3-88 


C VIIB 


3-5i 


5-93 


2.42 








VIA 


.24 


3 


60 


3-36 








D VIIB 


1. 11 


5 


59 


4.48 








VIA 


1.44 


5 


19 


3-75 








E VIIA 


i-35 


4 


4i 


3- 06 








F VIIB 


6.54 


4 


76 


—1.78 








G VII 


—•30 


5 


54 


5.84 








VI 


4-59 


5 


75 


.16 








H VII 














VI 

















In Table XLI school A has a gain of 3.49, in contrast with 
B's 7.55 ; C gains 2.42 to D's 4.48 ; and E, instead of tying F, 
gains 3.06 while the latter is losing 1.78. These reversals are 
even stronger arguments than the practical balance in each set 
of comparisons against a transfer from formal grammar; for 
the tests being so similar, an influence in one should be an 
influence in another. The gain in the sixth grades, comparable 
to that in the seventh, is additional argument against a specific 
transfer. In the Horace Mann School the scores for the rooms 
having formal grammar were in three cases out of four dis- 
tinctly better. 

Table XLII shows that in test 23 there was a distribution of 
scores that might have been effected by chance. School A with 
— .68 was better than B with its — 1.25; C with .19 was 
approximately equal to D with its, .21; and E with — 2.41 was 
decidedly inferior to F with its .10. Schools G and H with 
similar training scored — 1.32 and .53 respectively. These 



33 1] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 81 

scores show that the children after three to five months of formal 
grammar did not apply even a grammar definition, if it be an 
unusual one, any better than the children who have not had that 
training. 

In test 24 the distribution is even more unfavorable to the 
schools with formal grammar. School A with — 3.23 is inferior 
to B with its — .50; C with — 2.30 is inferior to D 
with its — 1-37; and E with — 4.59 is inferior to F with 
its — 2.14. G and H both exhibit strongly negative scores, 
— 2.00 and — 3.71. In schools D and H the sixth grade makes 
a better score than the seventh. 





TABLE XLII 




School 


Test 23 


Test 24 


A VII 


—.68 


—3-23 


B VII 


—1-25 


—•So 


VI 


—1.44 


—4.09 


C VIIB 


■ 19 


— 2.30 


VIA 


— 2.20 


—4.80 


D VIIB 


.21 


—1-37 


VIA 


— 1.67 


—.86 


E VIIA 


— 2.41 


—4-59 


F VIIB 


.10 


— 2.14 


G VII 


—1.32 


— 2.00 


VI 





—5.06 


H VII 


■53 


— 3-7i 


VI 


— 1.69 


—1-53 



It may be objected that the training received in formal gram- 
mar really hinders high scoring in these tests which present for 
application definitions that are unsound and different from the 
ones given in the grammar texts. This is doubtless true; but the 
children were warned to apply each definition exactly, whether 
they thought it a good one or not. This is just the ability that 
formal grammar most strongly asserts that it develops. The 
objection is really, moreover, in a way an argument for the 
perfectly sound principle that training should develop specific 
utilitarian connections. 

The scores of the schools having formal grammar make a 
poor showing not only relatively but absolutely as well. The 
possible score in each test is 4. It seems that children of 



82 



Teachers College Record 



[332 



thirteen years are really too immature to learn through ordinary 
school work to thoroughly apply for themselves unfamiliar 
definitions. All these conclusions are in complete harmony with 
those resulting from the tests in the Horace Mann School; the 
evidence is against a transfer. 

Group IV. Ability to make a rule or definition. 

As in the Horace Mann School this test proved too difficult 
for seventh grade children. Only in schools A and B were any 
positive scores at all made. In test 26 school A scored .05; in 
test 25 A scored .27, and B scored .40. Of course from so few 
data the only safe conclusion is that after the training received 
in formal grammar the children did not possess the ability to 
make the rules required by these tests. 

Group V. Ability to judge reasons. 

The results of the tests of the ability to judge reasons, as 
displayed in Tables XLIII and XLIV, are almost wholly against 
any transfer from formal grammar training. School A with 
scores of — .36 and — 3.41 is inferior to B with its .36 and 
— 1.72; C with 5.69 and 4.84 is inferior to D with its 7.48 and 
7.32; and E with 2.84 and 5.13 does no more than equal F with 
2.97 and 5.08. The sixth grade in schools G and H makes 











TABLE XLIII 








School 


Test 27 


Test 28 


Gain 


Test 28 


Test 27 


Gain 


A 


VII 








7.27 


6.91 


-.36 


B 


VII 








9.40 


9.76 


.36 




VI 








5.83 


9.07 


3-24 


C 


VIIB 


5-94 


11.63 


5-69 










VIA 


3 


33 


4.00 


.67 








D 


VIIB 


2 


84 


10.32 


7.48 










VIA 


— 1 


48 


8.62 


10.10 








E 


VIIA 


5 


44 


8.28 


2.84 








F 


VIIB 


5 


08 


8.05 


2.97 








G 


VII 


6 


72 


7.62 


■90 










VI 


4 


59 


8.00 


3-4i 








H 


VII 








6.05 


2.16 


-3.89 




VI 










11.00 


11. 10 


.10 



333] 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



83 



better scores in Table XLIII (3.41 and .10 compared with .90 
and — 3-89) than the seventh, and in Table XLIV a score only 
slightly inferior (5.19 compared with 5.35). In the other 
schools the sixth grade surpasses the seventh in four cases out 
of six. Thus neither school training nor the slight difference in 
age seems to make any material difference. Certainly there is 
no evidence that formal grammar improves the ability of 
children to judge such reasons as are in the tests. In the 
Horace Mann School the results were somewhat more favorable 
to the theory of transfer. 



TABLE XLIV 



School Test 29 Test so 



A 


VII 




B 


VII 
VI 




C 


VIIB 


4-31 




VIA 


2.83 


D 


VIIB 


2.26 




VIA 


— 1.29 


E 


VIIA 


3-io 


F 


VIIB 


4.82 


G 


VII 


4.07 




VI 


4-75 


H 


VII 
VI 





• 15 


4- 


.40 


2. 


.58 


7- 


.14 


9- 


■ 23 


5- 


.90 


5- 


.42 


5- 


• 94 


5- 



Gain 



Test 30 
8.82 
9-37 
7-74 



Test 29 

5-4i 
7-65 
5-89 



Gain 

—3-41 
— 1.72 
-1.85 



Group VI. Ability to use data. 

Table XLV presents another display which, so far as the 
upper grades are concerned, might have been secured by chance. 
School A gains .13 while B is gaining .27; C loses .18 while 
D is losing at least .25 ; and E and F are practically tied with 
losses of .12 and .13. School G loses .21 while H gains .19. 
In both these two schools Grade VI makes the better final score 
and gain. Thus no evidence results that in such life-like 
situations as are presented in tests 31 and 32 there is any 
improvement caused by the study of formal grammar. Neither 
was there any such evidence from the tests in the Horace Mann 
School. 



8 4 



Teachers College Record 



[334 









TABLE XLV 








School 


Test 31 


Test 32 


Gain 


Test 32 


Test 31 


Gain 


A 


VII 








.10 


•23 


■ 13 


B 


VII 








.08 


• 35 


.27 




VI 








.06 


• 23 


• 17 


C 


VIIB 
VIA 


■ 23 
• 17 


• 05 


—.18 








D 


VIIB 


•25 





—•25 










VIA 


.11 


• OS 


—.06 








E 


VIIA 


.20 


.08 


— .12 








F 


VIIB 


.26 


• 13 


—•13 








G 


VII 


• 33 


.12 


— .21 










VI 


.10 


.14 


.04 








H 


VII 











.19 


■ 19+ 




VI 








.08 


• 47 


•39 



Group VII. Ability to reason in arithmetic. 

From Table XLVI is seen that school A actually loses .071 
while B is gaining .074 and that C gains .130 to D's .172, but 
that E gains .176 while F is losing .046. When the actual 
scores are studied, however, it is evident that the difference 
between the gain of A over B is the one really significant, for 
D and E are bringing their scores from an inferiority into a 
practical equality with those of C and F. The scores of G and 
H seem not to be very indicative : three of the grades from 
normal bases make normal improvement; the sixth grade of H 
does unusually well in both tests. 







TABLE XLVI 








School 


Test 33 Test 34 


Gain 


Test 34 


Test 33 


Gain 


A VII 








• 571 


.500 


— .071 


B VII 








.620 


• 694 


.074 


VI 








• 451 


.583 


.132 


C VIIB 


•458 


588 


.130 








VIA 


• 317 


480 


.163 








D VIIB 


.368 


556 


.188 








VIA 


• 247 


419 


.172 








E VIIA 


.400 


5i6 


.176 








F VIIB 


.636 


590 


— .046 








G VII 


• 293 


538 


• 245 








VI 


.246 


312 


.066 








H VII 








• 390 


■ 540 


.150 


VI 








.588 


.717 


.129 



335] 



Forma English Grammar as a Discipline 



85 



From Table XLVII the schools that do not emphasize formal 
grammar show not only greater gains but also larger initial 
and, with one exception, final scores. In both tables the sixth 
grades, with two exceptions, show smaller scores and gains than 
the corresponding grade above. 

All these results go to emphasize those found at the Horace 
Mann School, that the influence of formal grammar, so far as 
that is the different factor in each group of classes compared, 
does not make for greater improvement in the ability to reason 
in arithmetic. 







TABLE XLVII 








School 


Test 35 Test 36 Gain 


Test 36 


Test 35 


Gain 


A VII 








.481 


■ 659 


.178 


B VII 








.690 


.888 


.198 


VI 








• 592 


.621 


.029 


C VIIB 


.228 


607 


379 








VIA 


.191 


280 


089 








D VIIB 


.316 


756 


440 








VIA 


.166 


790 


624 








E VIIA 


.450 


623 


073 








F VIIB 


• S23 


600 


o77 








G VII 


• 575 


608 


033 








VI 


• 324 


375 


051 








H VII 














VI 















Group VIII. Ability to reason syllogistically. 

In Tables XLVIII and IL three of the comparisons show 
greater gains for the schools emphasizing formal grammar and 
three show less. School A with losses of .01 and .49 is superior 
to B with its losses of .28 and .65; C with its gains of 1.43 
and .34 is superior in the first comparison and inferior in the 
second to B with its .74 and 1.00; and E with gains of 1.25 and 
.42 is in both cases inferior to F, which gains 2.19 and 1.04. 
In Table XLVIII the gains of the seventh grades of G and H 
average 91.5, as compared with an average gain of .88 by the 
seventh grades that do not emphasize formal grammar; in 
Table IL the gain of the seventh grade of G is 1.02, as com- 
pared with an average gain by the others of .46. But this latter 
comparison, which might seem to substantiate the claims of a 



86 



Teachers College Record 



[336 



formal grammar transfer, is not by itself very important when 
one notes that the sixth grade of G in the same table shows an 
initial score larger by .12 and a final score smaller by only .13 
than those of the seventh grade. 









TABLE XLVIII 








School 


Test 37 


Test 38 


Gain 


Test 38 


Test 37 


Gain 


A 


VII 








1.46 


1-45 


— .01 


B 


VII 








2.88 


2.60 


—.28 




VI 








1.56 


1.94 


.38 


C 


VIIB 
VIA 


1. 00 
1.67 


2.43 


1-43 








D 


VIIB 


1. 11 


1.85 


• 74 










VIA 


1. 00 


1. 14 


.14 








E 


VIIA 


1.29 


2.54 


1-25 








F 


VIIB 


1.36 


3-55 


2.19 








G 


VII 


1-43 


2.99 


1.56 










VI 


1.29 


1.88 


• 59 








H 


VII 








1.23 


1.50 


.27 




VI 








2.83 


2.47 


-.36 








TABLE IL 








School 


Test 39 


Test 40 


Gain 


Test 40 


Test 39 


Gain 


A 


VII 








1. 81 


1.32 


—■49 


B 


VII 








2.20 


i-55 


-.65 




VI 








2.07 


1-57 


—.50 


C 


VIIB 
VIA 


1.69 
1-33 


2.03 


■34 








D 


VIIB 


1-53 


2.53 


1. 00 










VIA 


1.05 


2.19 


1. 14 








E 


VIIA 


1.30 


1.72 


•42 








F 


VIIB 


1.09 


2.13 


1.04 








G 


VII 


1.70 


2.72 


1.02 










VI 


1.82 


2.59 


■77 








H 


VII 

VI 















Taken all in all, the evidence shows again what might be a 
chance distribution, though somewhat unfavorable to transfer. 
This harmonizes with the general results at the Horace Mann 
School, where Table XXII showed evidence against transfer 
and Table XXIII evidence for it. 



337] 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



87 



Group IX. Ability to detect catches. 

A glance at Table L shows an advantage of two comparisons 
to one for formal grammar. School A gains more than B (.92 
to .26) ; C loses less than D ( — .01 to — .14) ; but E loses while 
E gains ( — .31 to .56). Both G and H also show respectable 
gains. A closer study, however, reveals that the average gain 
of schools A, C, and E is .20, while that of B, D, and F is .22, 
practically the same. The four sixth grades, in the meantime, 
with half their scores superior to those made by their respective 
seventh grades, show an average of .75. It would be hard to 
find from this test any grain of evidence that favors transfer 
from formal grammar. This conclusion corroborates that 
reached at the Horace Mann School. 











TABLE L 








School 


Test 41 


Test 


42 


Gain 


Test 42 


Test 41 Gain 


A VII 














2.10 


3.02 .92 


VI 














3-19 


3-45 -26 


B VII 














2.01 


3-oo .99 


C VIIB 




2.65 


2. 


64 


— .01 








VIA 




2.83 














D VIIB 




2.84 


2. 


70 


—.14 








VIA 




2.10 


3- 


10 


1. 00 








E VIIA 




2.30 


1. 


99 


—■3i 








F VIIB 




2.59 


3- 


15 


-56 








G VII 




2.90 


3-51 


.61 








VI 




2.73 


4.14 


1. 41 








H VII 














2.56 


2.82 .26 


VI 














3-68 


3.29 —.39 










TABLE LI 








School Test 


43 


Test 44 


Gain 




Test 44 


Test 4j 


I Gain 


A VII 












16.64 


I74I 


■77 (5%) 


B VII 












15-45 


18.35 


2.90 (19%) 


VI 












12.58 


16.62 


4.04 (32%) 


C VIIB 14.92 


16.52 


1.60 


Or%) 










VIA 12. 


75 
















D VIIB 14 


.58 


15-05 


■47 


(4%) 










VIA 13.95 


I370 


—•25 


(2% 


loss) 








E VIIA 16.76 


15-94 


— .82 


(5% 


loss) 








F VIIB 14.95 


14.14 


—.81 


(6% 


loss) 








G VII 14. 


00 


14.71 


■71 


(5%) 










VI 10. 


47 


11.77 


1.30 


(12%) 










H VII 












10.32 


I3-8I 


3-49 (34%) 


VI 












15.83 


14.88 


—.95 (6% loss) 



88 



Teachers College Record 



[338 











TABLE LII 








School 


Test 45 


Test 46 


Gain 


Test 46 


Test 45 


Gain 


A VII 










7.41 


9.02 


1. 6l (22%) 


B VII 










10.45 


I340 


2-95 (28%) 


VI 










7-74 


9.17 


1-43 (19%) 


C VIIB 


8.19 


9.76 


i-57 


(19%) 








VIA 


6.04 














D VIIB 


6.84 


741 


•57 


(9%) 








VIA 


6.17 


479 - 


-1.38 


(22%) 








E VIIA 


8.55 


6-59 - 


-1.96 


(23% loss) 








F VIIB 


10.50 


6-93 - 


-3-57 


(34% loss) 








G VII 


7-37 


10.30 


2-93 


(39%) 








VI 


4-97 


6.56 


1-59 


(32%) 








H VII 










5-21 


3.38- 


-i-83 (35% loss) 


VI 










8.11 


7.91 


— .20 (2% loss) 



Group X. Ability to make prompt and accurate associations 
and to follow directions. 

As in the report of the tests at the Horace Mann School the 
results of numbers 43-46, as presented in Tables LI and LII, will 
in some degree indicate what improvement may result from 
chance variation, normal growth, and practice due to taking 
tests. No one, so far as is known, claims that improvement 
in the ability to make prompt and accurate associations is in any 
way affected by training in formal grammar. In Table LI the 
change in score ranges from a loss of 6 per cent to a gain of 34 
per cent ; in Table LII the range in per cents is from — 35 to 
+ 39. All the tests in this group have been standardized for 
adults ; consequently the cause of every variation in score should 
be sought outside the tests themselves. 

The results of tests number 47, 48, and 49, which were given 
first in the original series at each school, will be found in Table 
LIII. They will serve in some degree to show the general 
abilities of each school in comparison with those of the other 
school paired with it, and also to indicate what improvement 
may be due to practice in taking tests. For the first purpose the 
totals are given of the three scores taken together. These seem 
to show that B is better in the ability to follow directions than 
A, D than C, F than E, and G than H. The sixth grade of 
schools C and H also seem better than their corresponding 
seventh grades. 



339] 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



89 



In school G these tests were given in April as well as in 
September. The per cents of gain are: for the seventh grade, 
27, 19, and 18; for the sixth grade, 25, 12, and 27. Thus again 
we have a record of improvement resulting from chance varia- 
tion, normal growth, and practice due to taking tests. 

As test 48 immediately followed test 47, which was given 
first in the original series at each school, the superiority of its 
score indicates, outside of chance variation, improvement due 
wholly to becoming accustomed to tests of this kind. The 
changes are indicated in the third column of Table LIII. They 
range in the first series from 7 to 34 per cent, the median and 
the average both being 20. The tests were given the second 
time in school G after the regular second series had been 
finished and the children were, therefore, pretty well accustomed 
to tests. The gains of 12 per cent in the seventh grade and zero 
per cent in the sixth must represent, outside of chance variation, 
the " warming up effect." 









TABLE LIII 














(Change in 






School 


Test 47 


Test 48 


per cent) 


Test 49 


Total 


A 


VII 


9.72 


10.64 


9% 


10.09 


30.45 


B 


VII 


9-55 


io.55 


10% 


12.05 


32.15 




VI 


7.58 


9-75 


27% 


9-36 


26.69 


C 


VIIB 


8.20 


io.53 


28% 


7.78 


26.51 




VIA 


8.42 


11.25 


34% 


10.08 


29-75 


D 


VIIB 


9.16 


10.58 


16% 


12.32 


32.06 




VIA 


8.38 


11.00 


31% 


9.81 


29.19 


E 


VIIA 


9.14 


11. 19 


22% 


9.90 


30.23 


F 


VIIB 


9.09 


11. 41 


26% 


11.00 


3I-50 


G 


VII 


a. 9.90 


a.11.90 


20% 


a.12.46 


a.34.26 






b.12.54 


b.14.04 


12% 


b.14.65 


b.41. 23 




VI 


a.10.00 


a.11.19 


12% 


a.10.23 


a.31.42 






b.12.50 


b.12.50 


0% 


b.13.00 


b.38.00 


H 


VII 


8.68 


9.26 


7% 


9.00 


26.94 




VI 


10.50 


12.18 


16% 


5-94 


28.62 



Group XI. Ability to correct language errors and to point off 

sentences. 

If we assume, as there is no apparent reason for not doing, 

that the children in the schools emphasizing formal grammar 

have had as good language training previous to entering the 



go 



Teachers College Record 



[34o 



seventh grade as those in the other schools, it would follow that 
any inferiority in their scores in the tests of this group is prob- 
ably due to their failure to receive adequate training in such 
details as are tested. Such inferiority is found. (See Table 
LIV) In ten out of eleven comparisons the schools that 
emphasize formal grammar make a poorer showing than the 
schools that do not. Thus it would seem that the common 
schools emphasizing language and composition have at least an 
immediate practical advantage. In the Horace Mann School, it 
will be recalled, the advantage lay with the room having formal 
grammar in six out of nine comparisons ; but the overwhelming 
advantage in the western schools following instruction in 
language and composition makes it probable that their evidence 
is more conclusive. This is more readily accepted when one 
compares the advantage of the one Horace Mann grade over 







TABLE 


LIV 




School 


Test 50 


Test 51 


Test 52 


Test 53 I. 


A VII 


.08 


—4.27 


3-36 


6.64 


B VII 


.22 


— 1.70 


4.21 


10.70 


VI 


.06 


—4-34 


1.60 


10.14 


C VIIB 


.12 


—3.12 


1.52 


4.41 


VIA 


.08 


— 4.00 






D VIIB 


.004 


— 1.42 


1.74 


8.58 


VIA 


•03 


—3-57 


1.52 


4.62 


E VIIA 


■ 03 


—3.06 


— .12 


8.65 


F VIIB 


.10 


— 2.67 


3-43 


Defective 


G VII 


.19 


— 2.96 


1.92 


15-27 


VI 


.15 


—2.81 


1.50 


1. 00 


H VII 


.19 


— 1.26 


.06 


Unattempted 


VI 


.19 


-.65 


4-35 


10.00 



Test 531II. 



1.27 



TABLE LV 
Showing, for comparison, the amount of gain in each language test. 
50a 50b 51a 5ib 52a 52b 53a 53b 



Horace Mann School 

Following formal gram- 
mar 05 .01 1. 16 .24 

Following language ... .11 

Other schools, average 

Following formal gram- 
mar 

Following language ... .03 1. 55 1. 51 



■31 



4.12 



34i. 



Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 



9i 



the other in each of these tests with the much larger averages 
in the other schools. (See Table LV) The advantage seems 
conclusively with the schools not emphasizing formal grammar. 

Group XII. 

Table LVI presents results which at first sight would seem 
to weaken every conclusion in Part IV. In two cases out of 
three the school emphasizing formal grammar is a poor second 
in the grammar examination, and in the third it shows only a 
trifling superiority over a group of children six months younger. 
In school G, where formal grammar is unusually well taught, 
six months of the subject, treated along with composition, shows 
by this test only a trace (1.66). 



TABLE LVI 






School 


Test 54 


A VII 


5-57 


B VII 


12 


70 


VI 


6 


97 


C VIIB 


6 


54 


VIA 






D VIIB 


17 


89 


VIA 


8 


57 


E VIIA 


5 


77 


F VIIB 


5 


00 


G VII 


1 


66 


VI 






H VII 


Unatt. 


VI 


Un; 


ltt. 



The situation in the experiment is not so bad, however, as it 
seems. Formal grammar aims not at subject-matter but at 
method. " It is the work of making the definition," says 
Leonard, 3 " that is chiefly of value, rather than the definition 
itself after it has been made." This method, the result of the 
attempt to teach abstract logic, is not measured by test 54. Only 
results are asked for, results such as are usually sought in the 
grammar class. Of these no school has apparently taught very 
much. When one realizes that all a child had to do to score 10 
was to discover the word connecting the two members of a 

3 Grammar and Its Reasons, p. 335. 



92 Teachers College Record [342 

compound sentence, he will realize how small the scores are. 
Only two schools average more than 10, and no school averages 
as much as 20. What we are forced to conclude from test 54 
is that such matters as are asked for in the test, though pre- 
scribed by text-books, are not really taught in the first two-thirds 
of the seventh year, in either these schools that do or these that 
do not emphasize formal grammar. The only evidence we have, 
then, that formal grammar has received emphasis is the testimony 
of tradition, of those in authority, and of the text-books used. 



SUMMARY* 



I 



Although the tests used in this experiment pretend to be no 
more than rough measures of the abilities in question, it is 
believed that they have secured results more trustworthy than 
the judgments of those who have merely philosophized about the 
matter. Of the results reported in Part III, this is asserted with 
some degree of confidence, a confidence that is greatly strength- 
ened by the amount of corroboration reported in Part IV. 

As a result of this experiment it may safely be asserted that 
these particular children after the amount of formal grammar 
that they had, do not, as measured by the means employed, show 
in any of the abilities tested improvement that may be attributed 
to their training in formal grammar. To this statement there is 
a possible exception in the tests of Group I. 

It is not claimed that some other children with more extended 
and better teaching of formal grammar may not show in these 
abilities a superiority to other similar children without this 
subject; but certainly it is a matter that will admit of less con- 
fident assertion than before. Indeed, the burden of proof now 
rests with those who believe in a strengthening mental discipline 
from formal grammar. 

* All the data, including the original test sheets, reported in this ex- 
periment are on file at Teachers College, Columbia University, and under 
proper conditions may be inspected by any one interested. 

Tables showing the unweighted scores" of every pupil taking the tests 
used in this experiment have been printed. Copies may be had on appli- 
cation to the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College. 



X 



343] Formal English Grammar as a Discipline 93 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Abelson : The Seven Liberal Arts. 1906. 

Barbour: The Teaching of English Grammar. 1901. 

Bonses: The Reasoning Abilities of Children. 1910. 

Brown : Readjustments in Teaching English Grammar. English Journal, 

I9I3- 

Buck: Make Believe Grammar. School Review, XVII. 

Carpenter, Baker and Scott: The Teaching of English. 1903. 

Chubb : The Teaching of English. 1902. 

Comenius : Great Didactic. 1632. 

Committee of Ten : Report. 1893. 

Committee of Fifteen on Correlation of Studies in the Elementary 
School: Report. 1895. 

Gowdy: English Grammar. 1901, 1909. 

Hinsdale: Teaching the Language-Arts. 1896. 

Holmes : A Grammarian's Resurrection. Leaflet of New England Asso- 
ciation of Teachers of English, 1913. 

Hoyt: The Place of Grammar in the Elementary School Curriculum. 
Teachers College Record, 1906. 

Jespersen : Modern English Grammar. School Review, XVIII. 

Laurie: Language and Linguistic Method. 1893. 

Leonard: Grammar and Its Reasons. 1907. 

Locke: Thoughts Concerning Education. 1692. 

Monroe: A Text-Book in the History of Education. 1905. 

Mullinger: Schools of Charles the Great. 

Ruediger: The Improvement of Mental Functions through Ideals. Edu- 
cational Review, XXXI. 

Sayce: Grammar, in Encyclopedia Brittanica. nth ed. 

Sheffield: Grammar and Thinking. 1912. 

Thorndike: The Original Nature of Man. 1913. 

Whipple: Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. 1910. 

Woodward: Study of English in the Schools. 1887. 

Woodworth and Wells : Association Tests. Psych. Review Mono- 
graphs, 1910. 



VITA 

Thomas Henry Briggs, born 1877, at Raleigh, North Carolina. 
Educated at the Raleigh Male Academy, Wake Forest College 
(A. B., 1896). the University of Chicago (1898-1899, 1900- 
1901), and Teachers College, Columbia University (1911-1913). 
Taught English, Latin, and Greek in the Elizabeth City, North 
Carolina, Academy (1896-1898); and English in the John B;. 
Stetson University (1899-1900), the Princeton- Yale, Chicago, 
Preparatory School (1900-1901), the Eastern Illinois State 
Normal School (1901-1911), and Teachers College, Columbia 
University (1912-1913). 









TABLE I« 






















































UNWEIGHTED SCORES 
























TABLE la 




























H. M. S. 
Grade VII ' 

T J°° MI 1 1 2a [26 3 


4 „ 46 \ 5 6n 


66 


7 


8a 


86 


9 


10.: 


104 11 


12a 


12- 


13 


14a 


14* 


15 


16a 


164 


17 


[8a 


184 19 


20a 


204 


21 22o 


224 23a 


236 24a 


246 


25 


26.. 


266 27 


28a 286 


29 30,i 


304 31 


32a 


326 


33 


34a 


346 


35 


36a 


366 


37 38o 


386 39 


40a 406 


41 42a 


426 43 


44a -146 


45 


46a 


466 


47 


48 


49 


50a 


506 


51a 


516 


52a 526 


53a 5316 


53II6 54 


Bovs 1 10 

- 2 ' 

3 10 

4 " ' 

5 


II 

O £> 


1 10 
10 10 
.. 
o 
10 


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10 
10 

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1 



3 
1 




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3 


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1 



2 


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2 19 
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6 

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12 
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— 1 


I, 
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4 
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1 

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5 

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10 
6 
4 
6 
9 


13 13 
5 13 
.. 
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9 6 
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9 1 00 
.33 
11 33 
13 -67 


n 





11 


33 



I HI 

60 
.20 
.20 
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(in 



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1.00 


1 HI 

.50 

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611 


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1 00 
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3 1 
3 1 
3 
3 
3 1 


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2 2 
3 
1 2 
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2 2 
1 

2 .. 

3 2 
2 2 


4 3 
3.5 3 
2 3 
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4 2 


5 19 
3 16 
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13 .. 
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15 17 
11 17 
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7 5 

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15 
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13 
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11 
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38 
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lb 


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2 
3 
2 

15 


2 



6 


2 

1 

3 








ii 
1 

"i 




2 17 

1 19 

2 15 
2 —1 
1 4 


43 

—10 

—10 



25 
13 
7 
9 
14 


4 

6 
2 


2 
2 

'6 


6 
6 
4 
4 
4 


—8 
4 

—2 
6 


4 
8 

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in 
2 
2 


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2 

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1.00 


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111 
1.00 
.80 
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1.00 


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3 ,". 
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1 3 

2 2 

3 3 
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2 2 


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3 3 
2 

1 2 
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3 

3.5 3 

5 2 


3 17 
3 10 
3 8 
3 13 
2 .. 


12 12 

11 13 
.. 18 

12 15 

13 17 


5.5 


9.5 
10 


r, ;, 

12 
12 
2.5 
12.5 


7 
10 

8 

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11 
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'9 
5 


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8 

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.25 

.38 


.25 
.25 
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—1 


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-10 
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2 
2 
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12 
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2 21 
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-7 


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4 
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4 

4 


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2 
11. 
16 
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6 




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8 -1 

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8 4 
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5 
5 


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5 
5 


—1 8 
5 

2 .. 
4 2 
2 


7 —l 

5 2 

6 —3 

7 —! 
4 —1 


1 —3 

2 —1 
—3 1 

1 

2 -3 


—2 

—5 

—5 




II 










4 
3 
2 
8 
8 


5 5 
. . 13 
.. 7 
10 13 

4 13 


i. :: i '1 33 
9 .11 .67 

7 ..5 

8 8 11 67 

9 6 | 9 .33 






.33 



.33 



.40 




.60 
.80 


.60 

"40 
.20 


Ml 

.80 
.80 
1.00 
1.00 




.75 
.25 
1.00 
.75 


.20 

"60 
.20 


1 mi 
.80 
.40 
.80 
.60 


2 2 

3 .. 
1 1 
3 2 
3 .. 


2 2 

1 2 

2 
2 4 
2 3 


1 1 
2 

.. 1 
3 2 
1 1 


3.5 3 

1 '.'. 
2.5 2 
3 2 


2 13 
2 14 

2 11 
4 19 

3 15 


.. 17 

17 

. 15 

13 19 

14 14 


8 
10 

9 

5 
12.5 


3 5 
11 


11 
9 

13 
3 

14 


12 


is 

11 


16 
11 


.40 
.23 
—.13 
.25 
.25 


.56 
—.14 


.37 
—.07 


—2 

—1 


—10 

—10 
1 
2 


—1 —2 
1 8 
4 4 
3 

—1 8 


6 10 
14 10 

5 23 

6 22 
9 20 


25 
4 10 
—6 7.5 
2 27.5 
2 45 








.. 10 


























4 






-' 






6 .. 








4 


—1 


?, 






.. 


3 




3 .. 




33 






.60 






20 






.. 2 












2 










— 14 












Girts 1 
2 
3 












.. 
10 10 
10 


10 








3 
5 
1 


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2 
2 


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1 10 

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8 

10 
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6 


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8 
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8 
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5 


4 —5 
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6 
4 —6 


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-3 
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3 
3 
9 


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5 7 
5 10 


6 3 
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.. 
11 
11 




.67 


6' 




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.20 




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.25 
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.20 
.20 


"40 
.60 


1 1 
3 1 

2 3 


1 2 

1 2 

2 3 


1 .. 

2 2 
3 


4 2 
2.5 1 
3.5 1 


.. 15 
3 20 

1 .. 


9 14 
14 19 
10 14 


2 

6.5 


1 
4 
9 


1.5 
5 
12 


7 
10 
5 


9 
14 

17 


10 
5 
11 


.08 
.25 
.37 


.ii 

.54 


—1 
2 


2 
2 


6 6 

—1 4 
4 4 


16 .. 
14 19 

17 15 


7.5 
—4 10 
2 28 


4 , 1 10 

5 

6 4 10 10 

7 : o g ho o 

8 1 J \ 10 10 



10 
.. 
10 



10 



10 
10 


5 
3 

: 5 


—.5 



2 
— .5 

2 



1 
2 
1 
3 










2 
2 
1 



1 26 

2 17 

1 17 

2 17 
2 17 


8 18 
6 7 

1 23 

2 9 

1 14 


2 

2 
2 


ii 

2 

6 


2 

2 

6 



'8 
14 
16 
16 


8 4 
14 6 

8 8 
4 2 


8 
6 
7 
6 
8 


i 
7 


8 4 
8 4 
8 —1 
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7 1 




5 

5 
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5 
5 
3 
5 
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4 

5 8 
4 4 

6 5 


8 2 

6 1 
8 —3 



7 1 


3 —3 

1 —i 

—1 

2 

—1 


2 
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II 







10 
9 

6 

1 9 
7 


11 13 
2 10 
2 13 
13 13 
10 13 


9 5 
9 6 
9 6 
6 2 

9 4 


8 33 
11 .33 
11 .33 
.. .33 

11 








.33 




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.40 

.40 
.60 
.40 


1.00 


.40 


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1.00 
.40 


.80 
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1.00 
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1.00 
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.40 
.20 
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1.00 
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2 1 

2 2 

3 1 
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17 211 
14 20 
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15 
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-8 


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8 
7 
6 
6 
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7 1 1 —8 5 
1—2 

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4 —8 
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"33 
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.40 

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80 


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.75 

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1.00 


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3 1 


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1.5 2 
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3 17 
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17 19 

14 20 


9.5 

11.5 

12 

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8 
6 
11 


11 
9 


10 
11 
13 


.29 
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.37 

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3 
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fill 
1.00 


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.80 
.40 


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211 
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2 1 


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1 1 
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1 —1 50 




' 7 13 


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13 .33 





2 


1 





Room 11 
Boys 1 








TAB 




LE lb 

| 





1 4 


1 


2 19 


5 18 


.. 2 


8 .. 


2 4 


8 8 


7 


5 5 


3 


7 1 


4—2 2 


.. 


5 


5 13 


9 10 


II 


67 





.60 60 


.80 .50 


.40 .60 


2 


2 3 


3 3 


TABLE lb 

2.5 3 3 .. 12 15 


13 


16 8 


11 13 


-.38 .38 


-8 2 


l ' ' 


10 18 


6 25 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 




ii 

1, 1. 






10 






10 


111 111 



11 


1 10 2 
10 1 
1 3 
10 2 
.. —1.5 


1 3 



1 2.5 
3 

3 


1 

1 

.. 

1 .. 


2 17 
1 23 

1 21 

2 11 
23 


-« 7 
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7 15 
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2 
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2 6 

4 10 

2 


7 2 

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8 7 
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7 —1 

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2 6 

3 8 
6 3 
3 7 
2 .. 


7 —3 

7 1 

8 1 
6 3 
5 1 


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—2 —5 2 

3—8 

1 —1 

1 —2 —4 







1 



4 
6 
7 
3 
9 


7 13 
7 10 

10 13 
7 8 

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9 6 
9 6 
9 6 
3 
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11 .67 
10 33 
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.80 .40 
.80 .40 
.60 .60 
.40 
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1.00 .75 
1 00 .75 
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.60 
.20 .80 
.40 .60 
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3 
2 
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2 2 

3 .. 


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3 1 

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1 3 

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1 1 

2 2 

1 2 

2 3 
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4.5 3 
2.5 1 
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2 2 
4 


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2 13 

3 18 
2 16 
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11 17 

11 16 

12 12 
7 16 

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5.5 7 1 15 8 

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13 9 
8 8 


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13 .25 —1 —1 
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8 
9 
10 
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10 . 

10 

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| 


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8 2 
6 
5 1 
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3 —1 —2 
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.. 

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7 
10 
4 
2 
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7 13 

8 13 
7 5 


9 6 
9 6 
9 13 
9 6 
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^ .67 
13 .67 
13 1.00 

8 

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.80 .60 
1.00 80 

.60 .80 
.60 
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.. 1.00 
.80 100 
.80 .75 
.80 25 
.20 .25 


.60 

.20 .80 
.60 .60 
.20 .80 
.20 .20 


1 
3 
3 1 

2 1 
1 


.. 2 

1 3 

2 4 
2 3 
2 1 


'.'. 3 
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1 2 
1 3 


3 3 
3 1 
3 2 

2 3 

3 2 


i i3 
3 18 
3 14 
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14 .. 
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15 19 
9 16 
5 13 


2 1 .. 12 
3 .. 12.5 .. 
11.5 12 14 5 9 
5 9 | 14 8 
2.5 3 j 5.5 8 


17 10 

14 13 
10 11 
13 12 


.25 

.38 —.08 

-13 13 

[3 27 

14 27 


— 1 

I —4 
—1 2 


2 4 

2 2 
—2 2 

6 10 

3 2 


6 .. 
17 23 
—1 18 
12 8 
15 6 


.. 20 
—1 75 

4 50 
—8 30 

25 


12 


10 .. 


O 







10 


.. 
10 
.. 
10 

10 10 


.. 


10 



10 2 
10 3 

1 

2.5 
2.5 


3 

1 2 

1 4 
2 

2 2 


.. 






1 24 

1 19 

12 

1 28 

2 13 




1 —1 

6 

—9 20 

—7 9 


2 .. 
2 2 
2 2 
4 
6 


4 6 
4 16 

4 12 
4 8 
4 16 


10 

—2 4 

4 8 

8 12 

—8 10 


8 8 
7 6 
O 8 

6 6 

7 6 


8 5 
6 —2 
-1 
8 —1 
8 —3 


. . -2 
3 
5 . 
4 5 
4 1 


5 .. 
5 —4 

1 6 

2 5 
1 4 


6 1 

5 2 

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1 


4 —3 1 
2 —1 —2 
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1 .. 



1 




1 4 
6 
3 

9 

1 


.. 13 
7 13 

13 .. 
5 13 
5 13 


6 . 
8 11 
8 6 
8 6 
8 4 


9 .67 
11 1.00 
11 .33 
11 .67 

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.67 
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1.00 
.40 .80 
.80 .40 
.20 .20 
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1.00 .75 
1.00 75 
.75 
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1.00 .75 


1.00 
.80 
.60 .60 
.20 .20 
.40 .. 


4 6 
3 1 
2 1 
2 2 


1 3 
1 4 
1 3 

1 3 

2 3 


.. 3 
3 3 

2 3 
3 3 

3 .. 


4 

3.5 2 
3 3 
3.5 2 
1 7 


2 14 
5 14 

.. 18 

3 15 
2 14 


.. 14 

10 18 

17 20 
15 20 

11 14 


6.5 

4 4 
9 3 
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.38 .28 

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2 2 

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2 —1 


6 4 
2 
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5 6 
12 2 


1 16 
16 22 
12 17 
20 .. 


2 20 

20 
4 40 
.. 18 


14 
15 
16 


3 8 
17 12 

10 7 
9 15 


14 7 

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13 9 
10 15 


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2 11 

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6 


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13 13 
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8 .. 

9 13 
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11 

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.. .60 
.20 .20 
.80 
.40 


1 .. 
3 1 
3 .. 
3 3 


1 

2 1 

2 4 

3 4 


.. 2 

1 1 

2 

3 .. 


2 

4 1 
3.5 .. 
4 3 


5 20 
3 20 
3 16 
3 16 


.. 18 
17 18 
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14 20 


11 

11.5 4 
13 
8.5 12 






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1 2 
8 6 

8 4 


11 24 
19 24 

15 22 
22 .. 


2 90 
50 
6 60 
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3 


18.5 6 


15 14 


4 


12 12 


14 13 


6 
7 
8 
9 



10 




.. 

4 

10 


.. 


10 10 
10 
10 10 


.. 

o o 


4 



6 

10 4 
10 6.5 
5 
10 4 


2 .. 
— .5 —.5 
1 3.5 

1 3 

2 2 


1 
2 

1 
2 


18 
3 28 
2 24 
2 17 
1 3 


3 

14 25 
10 15 
2 15 
1 18 



2 2 
6 4 
2 
2 2 


16 

6 14 
8 16 
10 
6 14 


10 

6 10 
4 4 
2 2 

10 12 


7 7 
6 8 
6 6 
4 
4 4 


.. —0 
8 —2 
8 2 
7 1 
7 1 


5 

4 5 

5 5 
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-1 


5 6 
2 7 

4 —4 

5 6 
5 


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1 

6 2 
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7 


1 

.. — 2 . . 

4 —1 —1 

3 -1 —3 

—1 —2 




1 
1 




6 9 
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5 
8 


8 .. 
13 13 
13 13 
5 13 
—1 13 


8 3 

9 
9 8 
9 6 
9 11 


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11 33 
13 33 
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.33 33 


.60 
.60 .60 
.40 
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.40 
.60 

.40 .80 
.20 .40 
.20 .40 


1 

3 2 
2 2 

4 2 
4 


3 
3 2 

1 3 
3 3 

2 3 


2 .. 
2 .. 
2 3 

2 2 

3 4 


4 3 
3.5 3 

4 1 
2 3 

5 2 


.. 18 
5 20 

3 20 

4 17 
3 20 


13 .. 

18 17 
17 20 
16 19 

19 20 


6 5 5 
10 4 
18 18 

7 10 
13 8 


10 
18 13 
20 14 
6 12 
15.5 19 


11 13 

17 18 
16 18 
14 11 

18 19 


.25 

.38 .25 

.13 .38 

.17 

.63 .17 


—1 

—1 —1 

2 2 

—1 —1 

—19 2 


8 4 

3 6 
8 4 

4 6 

4 


14 .. 
20 .. 
24 24 
13 20 
17 14 


.. 50 
4 75 
2 5 
6 60 


11 
12 
13 


10 





.. 10 
10 


10 
10 .. 
10 


II 111 


10 



1 10 3 
10 7 
4 
3.5 


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6 5.5 

1 2 


2 

1 2 
1 


1 21 
1 11 
24 
3 23 


—6 7 
1 15 
10 .. 
12 11 


2 2 
4 
4 4 
2 


10 
-8 
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2 10 


2 8 
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10 
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1 
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1 .. 
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2 3 


3 1 
2.5 2 
2.5 3 
4.5 3 


3 11 
3 20 
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3 17 


13 16 

14 19 
12 

17 19 


4.5 
3 10 
8 13 
18 16 


5 6 
3 7 

10 
17 10 


8 8 
13 15 
11 10 
16 11 


.13 .33 

.38 .25 

.50 

.25 .33 


—1 2 
5 —1 
2 

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1 
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6 10 
2 10 


17 22 

18 .. 
23 .. 

4 20 


.. 70 
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2 65 





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re i 


4 


5 6 


7 8 


9 


10 


11 


12 | 13 M 


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16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 22 


2.; 


21 


27 28 


29 30 


31 



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33 


34 


35 36 


37 


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6 8 
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5 8 
8 8 

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1 
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3 


1 6 

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6 4 
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9 11 

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60 
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.40 
80 
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2 8 

7 4 
6 8 
6 6 

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5 
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5 8 6 

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.80 
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.75 
00 


40 
20 
60 
60 
40 


2 


1 

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1 
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1 


1 1 
1 2 
1 
3 3 
1 1 


3.5 1 

3 2 
2.5 2 

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1 1 


20 19 

19 D 

ll IS 

20 III 


7 
3 
6 
19 

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i 
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3 

11 
1 


13 

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8 
19 


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12 

14 
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2 

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15 


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20 
14 


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18 


- 8 

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4 
2 



6 
6 
5 


8 
8 
8 


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1 


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1 

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3 —6 

1 4 


ii 

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4 13 5 11 
3 13 6 8 




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40 


60 
.80 
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.75 
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25 


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60 
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1 
2 
3 


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2 2 

2 1 


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TABLE lib 














































Silti.nl li 
GRADI VII 

Tests 


1 2 


3 4 


5 6 


7 8 


9 10 


11 


12 


13 14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


in, 


ill 


38 


39 


40 


41 42 


. 


45 


III 


47 48 


19 


..ll 


.,1 


■••' 


53 1 i.i 


li„: 

2 
3 
4 
5 


n ii 


II II 
io o 
II II 


a 







10 

II 









II 




■1 

II 





2 

4 

2.5 
4 - 

1 


3 

2 
5 
.5 









1 

II 
1 

2 

II 


II 



11 

19 
13 


4 

6 

2 
— 2 


4 4 

4 2 

2 2 


ii 

16 
8 

— 2 


2 

"i 
2 


s 
8 
8 
3 
8 


8 

8 
5 


3 
—1 
—1 

5 
-8 


1 
—1 
—4 

2 
—2 


1 

3 
3 
2 
2 


2 
—1 
1 
7 
6 


-6 
3 
—5 
—5 
—2 


-3 



2 

—1 

—2 


ll 






ii 






5 
4 
9 
10 
2 


-3 

5 

111 
l.i 
5 


6 9 
9 6 
9 13 
9 

-1 4 



.67 
.33 
.33 
.33 






.33 



1.00 
.40 
.60 
.80 




Ml 

.40 
.60 
60 
40 


si) 
.60 
.60 

Sll 

.60 


sn 
.20 
.60 
.60 
.40 


1 

2 2 

3 2 
1 4 
1 1 


1 1 

2 2 

1 



4 2 

2 2 
4 3 

:i r. ii 
2.5 2 


1. 1 , 

12 9 
20 16 
18 11 




ii 
13 
18 
11 
13 


7 1 6 6 

ii i 5 
5.5 11 10 

17 1. 8 
in 5 in 


S 
5 
11 

1! 
7 



.20 


— 4 

— T 
■i 

— i 


1 
1 

4 
6 
6 


4 10 

2 HI 
1 1 15 

8 12 5 

ll 10 


6 
7 

8 
9 

111 


II 




4 


II 


10 



io 









III 




111 
II 


4 

3 

2.5 
5 
3 


2 
1 

.5 
1 
2 


1 







II 



1 
1 




21 
15 

21 
7 


15 
14 
23 
23 
5 


6 
4 
2 4 
2 4 

2 2 


14 
16 
16 
12 
8 


2 
4 
6 
2 


ii 
8 
7 
6 


8 
5 
8 
8 
5 


— i 
i 

3 


3 

4 
—1 





-I 
4 
6 
2 



—4 

8 


-5 

1 

—3 

3 


2 


—7 

1 

—1 


1 




1 











7 

8 
9 
5 


13 
13 

13 

13 

-4 


9 .. 

8 2 

9 13 
9 13 

—i 10 


!33 

1.00 

.33 


ii 



.33 



.80 
1.00 
.80 1 

.80 


80 
.80 
00 
80 
80 


SI) 

.80 
.80 

Sll 

.60 


1.00 

i.oo 

.80 
.80 
.40 


2 

3 
3 1 
3 3 

1 1 


2 1 
1 3 
1 1 

3 3 



o 4 
3.5 3 
-1 1 
4.5 3 
1 


20 I" 18 
15 II 13 
31 20 I, 
IS IE n 
I. 11 


18 

16 

18 
1 


9 9 11 
8 in 15 

12 1" II 

li 13 n 
7 1 12 


ill! 

33 
.07 




- i 
— I 


ii 

ii 
i. 
2 


■ 1 III 

7 

i. 


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10 

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111 




2.5 
1 5 


2' 
1 


II 




II 
1 


18 
15 




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- 14 

10 


in 
-6 


7 


8 
8 


—5 

—1 


1 





i 


—4 


li 
—1 


11 








8 
3 


al a 7 
13 9 13 


.33 
.67 






1.00 
.60 


ii) 
80 


.80 

.80 


.60 
1.00 


3 
2 


3 
3 




li 
3 






16 


12 


18 I i 19 


12 
.20 


i 

-10 


2 


,.. 10 


12 


21 


2 u 





— 1 


1 5 


2 


1 , 




(,nl. 1 
2 


10 
10 




10 


10 















2 
4 


1 
3 




1 



1 

1 
1 

2 




19 
21 


16 

16 


4 
2 


i 


2 
6 


6 

8 


7 
G 


^1 
2 


—3 

—1 


—1 
5 


—2 

8 


—4 
1 



—1 


1 
1 






8 
10 


8 
13 


9 11 
9 11 


.33 
.67 






1.00 
.20 


60 


.60 
.80 


.60 
1.00 


3 
3 


2 
2 




1 
1 


4 5 
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1 1)0 

1 00 


40 
l.OO 

60 

.80 


25 
75 
25 

00 


.20 

1 00 
1 00 

1.00 


2 

1 1 
1 

3 3 


3 1 

2 2 

2 1 

1 

2 2 


i 5 1 13 > 3 

2 2 15 13 
1 -1 14 15 


5 
12 
12 


—.14 

.50 

—.25 

.33 


-i 
—5 

—1 


4 
—1 

—2 


9 
12 10 

—22 
1 


ii ii 








3 — 5 


3.5 3 


18 20 


12 14 


14 


—1 10 


2 

3 

5 
6 


0O-. 
1 .. 
4 0.. 
0!.. 
4 ! 10 . . 









'6 


1 
2 

1 2" 
3.5 





11 

8 


2 


7 
— 2 
7 
3 



27 


2 .. 
2 .. 
.. 
2 2 
4 .. 



12 
6 

6 4 
-8 


7 .. 

8 .. 

8 .. 

6 6 

7 .. 


3 

—1 '4 
—3 .. 


2 

—8 

2 

3 


'4 


3 


.. 
.. 
.. 

.. 


1., 
33 
.67 
.33 
33 


00 


.00 
.60 
.60 
.00 
.60 


40 


25 
75 

25 
00 
75 


IK) 



2 

2 


'6 


T '.'. 
2 .. 
1 2 

1 ., 


.5 .. 
3 5 

1 
1.5 3 
3.5 .. 


S 

15 . 

16 ,, 
18 18 
20 


12" 


6 6 
9 8 
9 8 

7 7 
14 17 


S 
11 
14 
13 
12 


!66 


—9 


2 


— i io 


7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


n 10 
ii ii 10 
4 ! .. 
| 10 
| 









1 2 1.5 
2 2 
.. 3.5 
i 2 1.5 

10 1 1.5 15 
















9 

—10 
3 
2 


-12 
10 

iti 

7 


2 
2 2 
.. 
2 
2 



12 
2 
6 
—10 


—8 
4 

6 


4 
4 
8 
1 
6 


8 
5 

5 

4 


—1 
—1 

1 
—1 

5 


—1 
—3 

3 
—8 


1 
1 
—2 
2 
3 


8 
8 

—5 
6 


—2 
3 

1 
3 


3 

—4 












'6 




6 1J 

-5 1! 

6 ii 
2 1 


1 
3 
9 


HI 
13 

13 
13 


00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


nil 
(10 

.00 


211 
! 00 
.40 
.20 
20 


.60 

80 

40 
.20 


00 
25 
25 
(10 
25 


1.00 

1.00 

' 60 
40 


1 
1 2 
3 .. 

1 1 



2 1 

1 .. 

2 1 
1 


3 :, 3 

3.5 3 
2 .. 
35 2 
2 2 


13 16 
17 18 
17 .. 
13 15 

20 20 


1" 

10.5 

11 

7 

5.5 


3 
9 

iz!5 

3 


9 11 
11 12 

8 7 

9 13 
6 12 


9 
12 
6 
9 
9 


"7 

— 20 

!l4 

— 11 


—7 
—7 

—7 
—10 


■1 
—10 

6 
2 


12 5 
-11 

-8 20 
3 


12 
13 
14 

15 
16 


o o | o o 

1 10 
4 1 10 
4 10 
10 










10 





3 1 
4.5 4.5 
3 1 
3 
3 2 





1 





2 
1 
2 
1 
2 


2 

— 5 
3 

7 


8 
10 
21 
10 
— 2 


2 2 
2 4 
4 
2 
2 4 


14 
—10 
12 
4 
14 


4 
6 
2 
—6 
6 


4 
8 
5 
6 
4 


6 
6 
6 
5 
8 


4 

3 

—3 

—3 

—3 




1 

—1 

3 


1 

3 
3 
2 


8 

7 
7 
8 


2 
3 

—1 
1 
1 








—6 

—7 















6 13 

5 10 
11 

6 1! 
13 


I 

6 
2 


13 
13 
11 
8 
11 


00 
.33 
.67 

00 
.67 


.00 
.00 
00 
.00 
.00 


.60 
.80 
.60 
.20 


60 
80 
1 00 
20 
.40 


IKI 

00 
00 


IKI 

1 00 

80 
.40 
.20 








11 
3 
3 

1 


3 3 

1 1 

4 3 

2 
2 3 


3.5 1 
2.5 1 
4 3 
5 1 
3.5 3 


11 15 4 
16 20 8 
11 19 10 
13 15 9 

20 IS 12 


7.5 

18 
16 
12 
4 


9 10 
8 10 
5 8 
8 12 

11 13 


14 
II 
10 
12 
14 


.27 

.33 

.09 
.33 
.09 


2 

—1 

2 

2 

—10 


2 

10 

—2 

6 




11 in 
21 48 
17 15 
—1 
—8 10 


17 

18 


10 
4 10 


(1 








3 2" 









—10 
7 


111 
— 1 


2 .. 
2 


14 
8 


— 8 

4 


7 
6 


3 
7 


—J. 
—2 


—3 


2 
3 


8 
8 


n 
3 


1 






'6 


1 11 
-3 13 


2 
6 


9 

1 


.33 
.67 


^33 


Ml 
.80 


.40 
.20 


25 
75 


.60 
.60 






2 


4 '3 


2.5 .. 1 7 .. 
2 5 2 15 13 


5 
8 5 


i5 


6 9 
6 10 


10 
14 


.11 
.27 


-7 
—1 


'6 


i 


School C 
Grade VI, A 
Tests 


12,3 4 


s 


6 


7 8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 a 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 40 


41 42 j 43 44 


45 


46 


47 48 


49 


50 


51 


52 


53-1 51 


Bovs 1 

" 2 

3 

4 

5 


| 
1 10 
o I 
10 
o o 1 


(1 














4 
2 
2 
2 
3 


II 









--6 

5 

5 
—10 
—6 


-8 

.. 



2 .. 
2 .. 
2 .. 

'.', 


4 
-8 
8 
4 
12 


—2 
'8 


8 
8 

4 
4 

4 


8 
7 


—1 
—2 


—3 

4 


— i 

^3 


—8 


'8 
—4 


— i 


^4 
—7 


.. 
.. 
.. 
.. 
.. 


9 

7 13 
7 ., 
2 -12 
3 


5 
6 
3 
—6 
3 



13 


.33 ... 
.00 ... 
.33 ... 
.67 ... 
.00 ... 


.60 
.20 
.20 
.40 
.40 


".ii) 1 

"io 


25 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


"so 

"26 


3 .. 

.. 

2 .. 

1 .. 

3 .. 


2 .. 
.. 
2 .. 
.. 
2 .. 


4.5 . 16 
3 5.. 18 
3 ..14 
3 .. 9 .. 

3 . . 1 10 


5.5 

11 

■1 5 
5 5 
5 


13 15 
9 13 

4 3 

7 8 

8 11 


15 

11 
2 
7 

10 


—2' 

-6' 


2 :: 

-4 '.'. 




(i 











2 







1 


.. ' 2 .. 


14 




8 




—2 

















! 2 


I 3 




.33 




HI 




.25 




1 




2 .. 


2 ..111 .. 


3 




7 12 


8 










Girls 1 
2 
3 


1 10 

[ 













-2 
5 
2 









5 
1 


4 1 2 .. 

.. 2 .. 


10 
16 
12 


6 


4 
2 
1 


6 


3 

—1 
—2 


—5 


—\ 


6 


—7 


—4 








—5 -1 


I 





.00 
.00 
.00 




.40 
.00 
.20 


.80 


.00 

00 
.25 


.00 


2 

1 





.. 



2.5 .. 10 . 

2.5 .. a .. 

to 


5 5 
,1.5 




12 14 

8 12 

9 12 


14 
10 

12 





—7 






4 











3 










21 

— 2 


-lr t - 


6 


—2 
^8 


6 
7 
6 


8 
'3 


3 
3 
1 


1 
—3 


1 6 



'3 


—5 
^4 


.. 
.. 
.. 


s *ft|- 3 

-6 ..'. 

4 »]-, 


3 

ii 


.33 ... 
.00 ... 
.00 ... 


111 
.20 
20 


.80 

!66 


IK) 
25 
.25 


20 
"20 


3 

3 
1 




2 .. 

2 .. 

3 .. 


3 .'. 15 1 8 




6 8 

10 14 
8 13 


8 
13 
11 


1 
2 


—7 






6 














3 


:i 


2 .. 


4 


,4 : 




- 















































TABLE IHb 
















































School D 
Grade VII, B 
Tests 


1 2 


3 4 


5 6 


8 


9 10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


11 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 50 

5 —.23 
19 25 
9 .33 
8 .25 


51 

—1 

—10 

5 

2 

—1 


52 53-1 54 


Boys 1 

2 

3 

4 

5 i 


10 
10 
10 

4 10 









10 






3 —1 
5 1 

4 5 
2 1 
4 4 




2 





1 

1 


n 


-6 

—4 



—6 

—1 


—1 
9 
5 

-5 
6 


2 
2 
2 

2 


2 

11 
2 




-8 

2 

—2 
14 


4 
2 
12 



6 
8 
8 
6 
5 


8 
4 
8 
8 
6 



—1 

1 
3 


5 
—3 

1 
—3 
— 1 


- -1 

3 

4 

—8 

—2 


:". 
8 
6 
6 
8 


2 

—2 
1 

—2 
1 


2 
—4 

—1 

1 

—4 









II 







4 7 

-2 13 

3 13 

2 10 

—2 13 


5 8 
3 13 
3 13 
2 4 
2 8 


33 
.33 
1.00 
.00 
.00 


IKI 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


20 
.60 
.40 
.20 
.80 


.40 
.80 
.60 
.60 
.60 


25 
.25 
.75 
.00 
.75 


80 
.60 
.80 
.80 
.80 


1 
1 
1 





2 

1 
1 


2 2 
2 2 
2 1 
1 1 
1 3 


3 

4 

3 

3.5 

3.5 


3 
2 
3 
3 
2 


12 
11 
18 
16 
17 


11 
14 
20 
13 
18 


;i 5 

2 

8.5 

5 

9 


12 

4.5 
14 

9 

4 


5 


17 
6 
11 


•1 
2 
-1 
10 
13 


2 10 

4 16 15 

-2 —8 10 

-8 —5 10 


6 !00 

7 1 

8 | 

Girls 1 




10 











II 







2 .5 
5 .5 

1 1 

3 3 


1 
2 
1 

1 


—10 
3 
7 

—2 


6 
7 
10 

-15 



2 







4 

2 


—8 

—8 

2 

6 



16 
6 

2 


3 
7 

7 


6 
6 
8 

7 


—1 
1 
1 

—1 



5 
3 

—3 



—3 

4 

1 


8 

—8 
8 


2 
—3 

—1 

4 


2 



—6 

—4 









1 5 
4 13 
; 4 13 

j 5 13 


5 

—1 

5 

6 


1 
11 
13 

6 


.67 
.33 
.00 

.00 


.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 


.80 
.80 
.60 

.60 


80 
.60 
.20 

.80 


.00 
.50 
.00 

.75 


.80 
1.00 
.80 

1.00 


1 
1 


3 


2 
2 


2 


2 
2 


2 


3 

3 

2 


1 

4 
2.5 

4 


1 
3 
3 

2 


14 
13 

14 

14 


15 
16 
17 

14 


2.5 

2 

5.5 

12 


4 
11 
7 

7 


5 

12 
14 

7 


6 1 8 .11 
16 19 —.13 . —9 

15 15 - - 07 -1 

10 j 15 .23 , — 1 


2 4 10 

7 45 

— 1 14 10 

6 11 35 


2 |00 

3 10 

4 

5 1 

6 j 






10 
















1 2 

5 4 

1 —1.5 

2 1 

3 2.5 
















7 
—10 

-10 
5 
3 


9 
14 
-7 
13 

7 


2 4 
2 4 


2 2 


-8 
6 
10 
4 
6 


—f. 

6 
—4 
—4 

4 


5 
8 

8 

6 


7 
8 
—2 
5 
8 


—1 
—1 
—1 
1 
—3 


—2 


—3 

1 



—8 

3 
—1 

1 


3 
5 
6 

8 


2 
3 
1 
2 
3 


2 

2 

—8 

—6 

—1 
















5 13 
2 -6 
1 
—3 10 
2 13 


2 
—1 
—1 

3 
—3 


11 
8 
8 
11 
13 


.00 
.67 
.00 
.00 
.33 


.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


.00 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.6 


.20 
.60 
.60 
.20 
1.00 


.50 
.25 
.25 
.00 
.75 


in 
1.00 
.60 
.40 
1.00 


2 
3 





1 
2 


1 


I 




2 
3 

2 
3 


3.5 

4.5 

1.5 

1 

3.5 


3 
2 
1 
1 
2 


16 
17 
7 
15 
16 


11 
15 
10 
15 
17 


5 

11.5 
9.5 
7.5 
3.5 


2.5 
10 
3 
6 
10 


12 

9 
10 


14 
10 

11 
15 


10 1 

11 -.33 , -4 
11 07 2 
17 .13 2 


15 25 
2 10 
2 13 15 
2 19 45 


7 

8 

9 

10 ,00 

11 


10 
10 

10 
10 

















.5 .5 
3 3 
1 1 
3.5 .5 
3 2 


2 






2 
1 
1 

2 


-2 16 

2 19 

7 6 

-10 -8 

7 -2 


2 
2 

2 
2 
2 



2 

2 


2 
2 

6 
10 

4 




2 

2 

—2 


7 
8 
7 
7 
5 


8 
7 
5 
5 
6 



—3 

—1 
—2 


3 

1 

—3 

—3 

3 


2 
2 





8 
6 

8 

7 
6 




=8 

-3 

3 


—1 

1 





—1 


1) 














7 13 
-1 13 

2 13 
—3 13 

2 13 


6 
6 
5 
-6 
2 


13 
11 
11 

10 
9 


.67 

.00 

.00 

.00 
.33 


.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


.00 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.20 


111 
.80 
.60 
.40 
.40 


.75 
.25 
.25 
.00 
.25 


HI 

.80 
.80 
1.00 
.80 


4 

1 
1 
2 


2 
1 
2 
1 
2 


2 2 

3 3 

1 2 

2 1 
1 2 


2 5 

3 

2.5 

1 

2.5 


3 
3 
2 

2 


20 

14 

211 
13 
Id 


16 
15 
14 

18 


12 

111 
55 
1.5 

s 


■ 

12 
5.5 

8 , 


12 
8 

12 
7 

12 


11 

14 

9 

13 


11 —.12 2 
11 2 

13 1 — 7 

14 —.23 j —1 


6 20 35 
2 21 10 
4 7 IO 
6 | 16 15 


School D 
Grade VI, A 
Tests 1 1 2 


3 4 


5 6 


7 8 


• 


10 


11 


12 


13 
~2 


14 

"o - 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


45 


!' 


47 


48 


49 50 


51 


52 ! 53-I 5-1 


Boys 1 | 


10 








4 1 | 


j 11 


-8 


-8 


11 


6 7 


—1 


—2 


1 8 


-'1 


2 


11 





2 13 


-12 


8 


00 


;:; 


211 


.20 


HI 


60 


(i 


11 


1 3 


3 2 


15 


12 


; 

s.:. 
1 5 
12.5 
9 


11 








~ 6 


— ' ' 


2 

3 1 

4 

5 1 

6 ,00 




10 




11 













5 2 

2 4 

3 T 5 

4 












1 
2 


-4 

-10 
5 
7 


-3 
-9 
10 
8 
19 

15 

li 

-Til 
11 

1 

17 

8 

S- 

7 

7 

-10 

-3 


2 

2 
2 

T 
I 




2 

i 





i) 
2 




4 



4 







5 

T 


2 
2 


2 

-2 
12 
12 



4 
J 


6 
2 
6 

7 
7 


6 
8 
8 
7 
1 


—1 
1 
—1 
—3 
—3 


1 
— 1 
5 
1 
1 


5 
—8 
2 

4 


6 
8 
6 
8 
—6 


—1 

—1 

—7 

2 




11 
2 
3 
2 
—i 
















-1 10 

4 

7 13 

-1 13 

-3 13 


—12 

3 

6 

-6 


10 
11 
13 
13 
11 


.00 
.00 
.33 
.33 
.00 


.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


.00 

.40 
.20 
.40 
.60 


1 00 
.40 
.60 

1 HI 
.80 


.25 
.50 
.25 
.25 
.50 


Ml 

so 

1.00 
.80 
.80 


11 

1 






? 

2 




2 




1 
1 
1 
2 

1 


2.5 3 
15 3 

1.5 .3 

2 -1 


'111 
8 
16 
18 
16 


15 
5 
19 
15 
12 


3 

6.5 
3 
5 


I 
9 
13 
11 


6 
14 
15 

14 


8 —.25 

12 .25 

13 

13 .13 


—6 
5 

—2 
2 


2 

4 

6 

—2 


15 
15 10 
17 5 

5 10 

10 
10 
9 

—3 10 


7 
8 
9 

Girls 1 











10 


10 


II 
II 











3 1 

2 

3 1.5 

1 1 





11 





1 


1 


-HI 
—4 
-2 

-2 


"8 


1. 



2 

-2 


7 
4 

6 


8 
5 
7 

7 


—5 



—3 

—1 


2 
4 
5 

3 


J 
2 
2 

—1 


8 
8 
6 

6 


—5 

—2 

3 






—1 

—4 
1 
















5 13 

-5 8 

9 13 

3 10 


6 9 

2 4 
-1 6 

3 5 


.00 
.00 
.33 

.00 


I.I 

.00 
.00 

.00 


.20 
.20 
.20 

.40 


.20 
.60 
1.00 

.00 


25 
.50 
.00 

.50 


.40 
.60 

.80 

1.00 


1 1 

2 
4 2 

1 2 


2 
1 
2 

2 


| 2.5 
3 1 2 
2 I 3.5 

4 ; 15 


2 
2 
3 

3 


14 
18 

13 


14 
12 
14 

14 


2 . 

8 

6.5 

3 


2 
11.5 

3 


4 
11 

10 


11 
13 

10 


11 
9 .14 

10 —.08 


—7 

—1 

—10 


" 

8 

-2 


2 
3 
4 

6 









10 








IJ 













5 4 

3.5 3 
1 2 

-2 











1 
1 



—10 
—10 

5 
3 


8 
—8 
-8 

6 

4 
—8 

6 

—8 

8 


2 

-2 
—8 


7 

—10 

8 

-8 

8 


3 
—2 
8 
4 
7 




1 
—2 




— 1 

1 
— 1 
—5 




2 
2 
1 


8 

8 

8 

—4 

7 


—6 
—5 
—2 

■1, 
—1 


—1 



—6 

1 
1 


11 














-1 13 

-12 13 

-12 10 

4 -3 

-2 7 


5 

5 

-12 

—3 

3 


3 
6 
1 


6 
5 
8 

3 

11 
9 
9 
7 

10 


.33 
.00 

:;:■: 
.33 
.33 


.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


.40 

00 
211 
ill 
20 


.40 
.00 
.60 
.20 
.60 


00 
.00 
.25 
.00 
.25 


80 

.20 
.20 
.20 
.40 


1 

1 

1 1 

1 1 

3 1 


1 
1 


1 
1 


1 


2 
1 
3 


1.5 

1 

2.5 

2 


2 
1 
2 
3 
2 


16 
4 
10 
15 
18 


12 3 

13 2 

1 

14 10 


3 
3 
1 
8 


7 
6 
7 
8 


9 7 —.08 
9 1 7 —.25 
111 11 —.50 
11 9 .09 


—7 
— 1 

—2 

— 1 


2 
4 
2 

4 




12 
—6 

3 HI 


nolo 

8 ! 

9 1 

10 (1 ! 10 

11 11 a 


II 
1.1 
11 
II 











! 1.5 2 
4 2 

2 1 

3 3 
3 






1 










-10 

-10 

-6 

7 

16 



12 
8 

-4 


7 

7 

—20 

6 


7 
8 
3 
8 
—2 


— 1 


—2 


—2 


-1 
1 
— 1 
—2 
— 1 


1 
2 
1 

--S 




5 

6 

—6 

6 


—2 
1 
2 


—1 






— 1 

— 1 

— 1 
















7 7 
—1 5 
-12 7 

6 10 
—12 _9 


.00 
.00 
.00 

.110 
.00 


33 
.33 
.00 
.1)0 
.00 


.20 
.60 
20 

.20 

.40 


IKI 

20 
.40 
.00 
.20 


.00 
.00 

2:. 
.25 

00 


.40 
.40 
.60 
.80 
.40 


3 

2 
1 




1 

1 





2 

2 



11 


2 i 3.5 
2 

1 2.5 

2 2 5 

MJL_ 


1 9 
3 12 

2 15 

3 14 


14 8 

15 11 
18 3 

12 | 7.5 


1 
7 
4 
5 


4 
8 

'i 

1. 


9 8 .40—1 

12 14 .08 ' — 1 
12 14 .25 — 1 
7 —7 


2 
4 
4 
6 


15 

1 
—3 10 

10 


12 I 


II 





: 5 - 





1 


« 


—1 


8 


—1 


— 1 


—2 


8 


2 


2 





I.I 


2 11 





11 


00 


.00 


.00 


.40 


25, 


1 IKI 


• 


II 


2 


2 3 •:> 


2 16 


14 ' 12.5 



































School E 


























Grade VII, A 


1 


2 


■'■ 


4 


5 


6 


7 8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 » 


Boys 1 


" 


ii 


II 




10 




n 





2 3 
1 2 


'6 


II 




-3 
19 


-1 
6 


2 I 

s 

2 4 










1(1 


ii 


II 


3 1.5 








— 19 








n 


Si 


ii 


II 


1 .5 









h 




1 i 


5 




















3 —.5 








—2 








i> 


111 


ii 


n 


1.5 —.5 





■' 


14 


17 








ii 


III 




(i 


1.5 .5 


II 


(1 




17 









n 


n 


4 


(i 


ii 


2.5 2 










13 




9 


1(1 





ii 


HI 





ii 


2 3 


1 










10 



























2 

2 2 








n 


n 


n 








3 3 








20 


18 




II 





ii 


hi 


(1 





1 1 




















(1 


ii 














4 











10 








3 .5 








16 


b 




















3 







5 




.. 




(1 




ii 




II 




—3 














II 


ii 


ii 


hi 


II 


ii 


3 —.5 














II 




ii 




II 


(i 


3 










1 'n 


9 


o 

















2 I 








..IS 










n 








2 









2 .- 








ii 


in 


II 


II 


2.5 2 









I s 


12 


10 













10 

— 


2 1 











TABLE IVa 



25 


26 






ii 




(1 


ii 


(1 




(1 




11 





















60 1.00 1.00 .80 
1.00 1.00 
.00 



9 11 



JLfJ « 42 43 44 



2 19 17 



.75 .00 1 1 



.00 .60 1 12 2 



11 


13 


10 


12 


14 


1« 


V 


V 


4 


10 


10 


R 


11 


IX 


V 


14 


15 


19 



School F 
Grade VII. B 


1 2 


3 4 


5 6 


7 8 


9 10 


11 12 


13 14 


15 16 


17 18 


19 20 


21 22 


23 24 


TABLE IVb 

25 26 27 28 


29 30 


31 32 


33 34 


35 36 


37 38 


39 40 


41 42 


43 44 


45 46 


47 48 


49 50 


51 52 


53-1 54 


Boys 1 
2 


10 



10 
10 






2 

3 5 1 


.. 



24 12 
9 20 


2 
2 8 


6 4 

-2 2 


8 7 
7 8 


—5 —2 
—3 —1 


2 —2 

3 8 


1 3 
1 2 






—1 11 

6 13 


6 4 
9 11 


,33 .00 
.33 .33 


.80 .60 
80 .60 


.00 .80 
.50 1.00 


1 

•1 3 


1 2 
1 2 


2 3 15 18 
2 3 10 15 


10 3 
11.5 11 


6 9 

8 14 


13 . 13 
10 —.25 


— 1 6 
—4 


.. 

.. 10 


3 

5 
6 
7 



10 
10 




10 

2 
2 




4 





2 —.5 

3 .5 

1 1 

2 —1 
1 1 






1 
.. 
.. 


7 -14 

7 —i 

-13 3 

—6 12 

-3 18 


2 
2 
2 6 
2 



10 2 
2 —8 
6 4 

14 2 
—2 -6 


7 7 

8 —1 
6 
4 
—1 


—1 —1 
—8 —3 

—1 
—1 —2 
—1 —1 


2 2 

4 7 
6 5 
4 4 
2 3 


—2 
—3 2 

1 —9 
—2 1 

1 3 









6 ~l 
2 7 
-1 13 
2 7 
2 13 


5 2 
9 13 
5 10 
—9 13 
3 11 


.33 .00 
.33 33 
.33 .33 
.00 .00 
.00 .00 


.60 .20 
.20 .20 
.80 .40 
.40 .60 
.40 .60 


.50 .20 
.75 .60 
1.00 .00 
.25 .80 
.75 .80 


2 3 
2 2 
2 
2 
1 


2 1 
1 
2 1 
2 
2 1 


2 1 , IS 13 
1 12 12 
3.5 4 11 10 
4 2 16 12 
i 13 


8.5 5.5 
4.5 3 
9 4 
12 6 
3 6 


7 12 

4 7 
9 13 

8 8 

5 9 


9 .00 

7 .09 
9 —.33 
9 .27 

8 .09 


—6 4 

—10 4 
-2 —1 
—1 2 
—7 2 



.. 10 
.. 
.. 




8 
9 

10 

Girls 1 




10 




10 
10 
10 

10 


10 






3 .5 
2.5 1 
3 —1.5 

3 1 


1 .. 

2 

1 1 

.. 


21 ~15 

20 4 

2 4 


2 2 

4 4 
2 

2 


16 2 
16 2 

16 4 

4 —8 


6 7 

7 8 

8 8 

8 


—2 4 

—3 5 

2 5 

—2 —3 


3 

8 7 
2 4 

—2 8 


1 1 

2 —I 
2 —8 

1 









5 13 

7 13 

8 13 

1 2 


8 11 

9 13 
6 13 

2 13 


.67 .33 
1.00 .00 
,67 .33 

00 00 


.60 .60 
.80 .80 
.80 .80 

.60 .40 


1 00 .80 
1 00 .60 
.75 1.00 

.25 .20 


2 3 

1 3 

2 2 

1 3 


1 2 

3 4 
1 




4.5 7 
4 3 
4 3 

2.5 3 


19 14 
16 18 
19 20 

10 7 


14 11 
13 10 
17 7 

9 6 


12 13 
12 14 
14 15 

6 10 


10 .00 
15 .66 
18 .46 

6 —.17 


1 2 
—1 8 
—1 6 

—1 


.. 20 



.. 10 

.. 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


10 
10 





.. 

10 

10 


.. 






2 

2 1 
4 

3 .5 
1 


.. 
1 
.. 
1 
.. 


3 

1 13 
17 -3 

7 7 
14 24 


2 .. 

2 
2 
2 2 


10 —2 
4 2 
8 —4 


.. 
7 
5 
7 8 
8 



—1 —3 
—1 —1 
—2 1 

3 


4 

2 4 

—2 6 
2 


2 —2 
—1 —3 
—2 —6 
—2 —1 


.. 






1 
—1 7 
6 7 
1 -4 
1 10 


9 .. 

—9 11 

9 11 

5 6 

9 11 


.00 

.00 .00 
00 33 
.00 .00 
.00 .00 


.40 
1.00 .80 
.40 .60 
.80 .40 
.40 .80 


.00 .. 
.75 .8 
.25 ,8 
.25 .4 
.50 ,00 


1 .. 

2 
2 1 
1 
2 


2 .. 

1 1 
1 
2 

2 2 


2.5 .. 
1.5 2 
2.5 3 
2.5 2 
3.5 2 


20 .. 
13 10 
17 11 
17 14 
17 14 


13.5 

11 5 
12.5 5 
9 7 
4 4.5 


9 11 
9 12 
6 7 
9 9 
11 12 


11 

14 .40 
8 .43 
8 —.14 

12 .14 


— io 8 

—10 2 
—1 6 

2 8 








.. 

.. 10 


7 
8 
9 

10 
11 


10 






10 

10 











1.5 1 

5 1 
2.5 1 

— .5 .5 


.. 
.. 
1 
2 
1 


4 4 
6 -5 

15 2 
8 -13 

15 4 


2 
6 
2 2 

2 


10 
12 8 
12 —2 
4 —8 
10 


8 5 

7 8 
7 7 
(1 7 
4 


—1 —3 

—1 —5 

1 5 

1 1 

—1 2 


3 6 
2 3 

—2 7 
2 7 

4 6 


2 1 
—1 —7 


—2 —6 

—6 









3 13 
7 -1 
6 3 

2 7 

3 13 


2 11 
—1 11 
9 6 
2 5 
9 11 


.33 .00 
.33 l«l 
.33 .33 
.00 .00 
.33 .33 


1 CO .80 
.60 1 00 
.80 1.00 
.00 .00 

100 .40 


.75 .60 
.75 1 .00 
.50 .80 
.25 .40 
.00 .40 


2 3 

3 3 
1 3 

1 

1 2 


3.. 
1 3 
1 2 
1 
2 


1.5 3 

2.5 3 

2 3 

3 2 
3.5 2 


19 14 

20 20 
IS 18 
11 12 

9 13 


9 10 
16.5 10 
.. 11 
8.5 6 
9.5 1.5 


9 13 
13 14 
13 12 

10 9 

11 12 


14 .25 
13 .25 
17 —38 
9 09 
8 IK 


—1 6 

2 2 

4 8 

—1 2 

— I 2 



. 10 
.. 10 
.. 




12 





10 





4 .5 


1 1 | 12 ^|^£ 4 


16 4 


8 


5 —5 


—2 8 


2 —5 





7J3j,' 6 11 1 .33 .00 


.80 .80 i .75 .60 1 3 3 


1 3 


■ :, 2 l!l 19 1". 5 I.i 


9 16 


14 —.27 


-1 ,j 






/ 



























Grade vn 


























i 


2 


3 


4 


.. 


(i 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 




Bovs I 


ii 


l> 











n 


•: 


:' 






3 


s 


in 









II 




■/. 




















II 









1 































11 


5 


10 








10 





ii 


2 


— 5 





i 


6 1 





n 


n 




















7 


10 











II 


<> 


1 



















II 




11 


S 


1 




















11 


3 








18 
10 


10 | 




















2 


2 





2 


s ! 



10 







ii 




1, 





• 


3 


1 




n 


1 


7 _ 



TABLE Va 




LIBRARY OF CONGRES 



021 772 785 6 



